Kingdom of Kumaon
Kingdom of Kumaon कुमाऊं राज्य (Kumaoni) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 600–1791 | |||||||||
 Flag | |||||||||
Royal Seal | |||||||||
 .png){kind=small} Location of the Kumaon Kingdom, and main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[1] | |||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital | |||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||
| Ethnic groups | |||||||||
| Religion | State religion: Hinduism Other: Buddhism | ||||||||
| Demonym(s) | Kumaoni | ||||||||
| Government | Federal Aristocracy under an Absolute monarchy influenced by Political Factions
or Occasionally an Oligarchy with a Monarchial Figurehead | ||||||||
| Maharajadhiraja | |||||||||
• 600 | Vasu Dev (First {Katyuri Dynasty} | ||||||||
• 1064 - 1065 | Bir Dev (Last {Katyuri Dynasty} | ||||||||
• 700 - 721 | Som Chand (First {Chand Dynasty} as Feudatory) | ||||||||
• 1450 - 1488 | Ratna Chand (36th {Chand Dynasty}, First of united Kumaon) | ||||||||
• 1638 - 1678 | Baz Bahadur Chand | ||||||||
• 1788 - 1791 | Mahendra Chand (Last) | ||||||||
| Diwan | |||||||||
• 700 - 721 | Joshi Sudhanidhi Chaube (First {Chand Dynasty}) | ||||||||
• 1788 - 1791 | Lal Singh (Last) | ||||||||
| Legislature | Panchayat of Kumaon (Powerful Privy council) | ||||||||
| Malladhada (Mahar Faction) | |||||||||
| Talladhada (Fartyal Faction) | |||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 600 | ||||||||
• Fall of Katyuri Dynasty | 11th Century | ||||||||
• Period of Fragmentation | 12th Century - 15th Century | ||||||||
• Reunification of Kumaon by Chand Dynasty | 1450 | ||||||||
• Invaded by Kingdom of Nepal | 1791 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
• Total | 42,000 km2 (16,000 sq mi)(Approx. area during peak of Chand Dynasty) | ||||||||
| Currency | Rupee, Paisa | ||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||
29°35′50″N 79°39′33″E / 29.5971°N 79.6591°E
Kingdom of Kumaon (Kumaoni: कुमाऊं राज्य , Persian: پادشاهی کوماون , Tibetan: ཀུ་མའོ་རྒྱལ་ཕྲན།) also known as Kurmanchal, was a Himalayan kingdom that existed for nearly 1200 years.[2] The kingdom was established by Vasu Dev of Katyuri Dynasty in 7th Century after he unified many small principalities. After the fall of the Katyuris in the 11th Centry and about three centuries of fragmentation, the Chand Dynasty managed to reunify Kumaon in the middle of 15th Century. During their rule Kumaon was spread sovereign from river Tons to river Karnali. They shifted the capital from Kartikeyapura (Baijnath) to Champawat in the 12th Century, and finally to Almora in 1563. Kumaon was annexed to the Kingdom of Nepal in 1791. [2][3][4]
During the 500 year rule of the Katyuris, new culture and traditions began to form, which would serve as the basis of modern day Kumaoni culture. Shaivism within Hinduism became the predominant belief of the region. Several temples were build during this time period, like the Jageshwar Temples Complex and the Katarmal Sun Temple. Sanskrit and Pali languages were widely used. The administration during this time was done very finely, bridges and roads were well built. All the functionaries were worthy, educated and devoted to their duty. After the decline of the Katyuri Dynasty, Kurmanchal fragmented into many petty kingdoms. [2][3]
After about three centuries of fragmentation, the Chand Dynasty unified what is the modern - day Kumaon division and Doti during the middle of 15th Century, although they were present in Kumaon from the 8th Century. During the 700 year rule (400 year rule of united Kumaon) of the Chands, culture and religion in Kumaon bloomed, and folk traditions and practices gained more and more importance as a popular form of folk Hinduism emerged, which is still majorly practiced. The Kumaoni language gained prominence while Sanskrit was used only for religious and educational purposes. A party system type of government was practiced during the Chand rule. All the castes were given representation with this system.[2] For about a century, the kingdom experienced a Golden Age and became an epicenter for trade, religion, education and literature among the Himalayan kingdoms. From the start of 18th Century the Kingdom of Kumaon began to weaken after few powerful families gained a lot of influence and power, and a series of weak kings caused political turmoil within Kumaon. Kumaon was further severely weakened due to two failed Rohilla invasions, from which it never fully recovered. Owing to political instability, financial crisis, power stuggle, and rebellions within, the Kingdom of Nepal was able to invade and annex the Kingdom of Kumaon in 1791. After 24 years of oppressive Nepalese rule, this region fell to the British East India Company and later the British Crown.[2][3]
The Katyuris and the Chands left a substantial legacy to modern - day Uttarakhand. Much of the Kumaoni culture, societal norms, and folk traditions, along with the Kumaoni language, derive from the culture and traditions of the Katyuris and the Chands.
Etymology
[edit]Kumaon is believed to have been derived from Kurmanchal, meaning land of the Kurma Avatar (the tortoise incarnation of Lord Vishnu, the preserver according to Hinduism). The region of Kumaon is named after as such.[5]
During the time of the British control of the region, between 1815 and 1857 it was also known as Kemaon.[6][7][8]
History
[edit]Pre - establishment
[edit]Pre - historic
[edit]
Kumaon finds mention in the early Hindu scriptures as Manaskhand.[9]
Prehistoric dwellings and Stone Age implements have been discovered in Almora and Nainital districts.
The paintings at Lakhudiyar Caves near Almora are believed to represent life in the prehistoric village during the Mesolithic period.
Kunindas
[edit]
Initially settled by Kol tribals, the region witnessed successive waves of Kiratas, Khasas and Indo-Scythians(sakas).
The kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) was an ancient central Himalayan kingdom documented from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, located in the southern areas of modern Himachal Pradesh and far western areas of Uttarakhand in northern India and Doti in Nepal.
The Kunindas were among the first known indigenous rulers of the region.
Katyuri Dynasty
[edit]Establishment
[edit]Around 700 CE, the Katyuri dynasty was established by Vasu Dev in the region. They called their state Kurmanchal, the land of Kurma, the second avatar of Vishnu, from which the present name is derived. Their capital was Kartikeyapura (morden day-Baijnath)[4][10] and the Gomati Valley came to be known as the Katyur Valley after the ruling dynasty.[4] during their reign they dominated lands of varying extent from the Katyur Valley (modern-day Baijnath) in Kumaon, between 7th and 11th centuries C.E., and established their capital at Baijnath in Bageshwar district; which was then known as Kartikeyapura and lies in the centre of Katyur Valley. Brahmadev Mandi (a trading and business center in a flat area of the then Katyuri dynasty) in the Kanchanpur District of Nepal was established by Katyuri king Brahma Dev. Brahmadev Mandi still exists by this name.
Peak
[edit]During the peak of Katyuri Dynasty the sovereigns were bestowed the title of Giriraj Chakrachudamani, and the 16 monarchs who ruled during that time are termed as Chakravarti or Emperors.[11]
Downfall
[edit]It is believed that from king Dhan Dev and Vir Dev the downfall of this powerful dynasty began. Vir Dev used to collect heavy taxes and forced his people to work as his slaves, King Vir Dev teased his subjects by his tyranny to the extent that he forcibly married his own maternal aunt Tila (Tilottama Devi). It is said that the Kumaoni folk song 'Mami Tile Dharo Bola' became popular from that very day.[4]
Period of Fragmentation
[edit]Fall of Katyuri Dynasty
[edit]After the death of tyrant Vir Dev, there ensued a civil war among his sons. Fierce fight took place among them. Whole of the kingdom was ruined. The people of this very family divided the whole kingdom among themselves. At the places where they were formerly placed as provincial governors or faujdars, there they declared themselves as independent kings. Outside Kumaun the feudatory kings of Garhwal, who were till then under the jurisdiction of the Katyuris, stopped paying revenue and also became independent kings.[12]
The same condition prevailed in Kumaun when the Chand kings came there. Petty feudatory kings ruled here and there and attacking one another showed their power. King Brahmdeo of this very family (after whose name Brahmdeo Mandi was founded) established his kingdom in Kali Kumaun. His first fort lay in Sui and the Rawat king of Dumkot was under him. The second branch started ruling at Doti. The third established itself at Askot. Fourth settled down at Baramandal. The fifth maintained its sovereignty over Katyur and Danpur. The sixth branch ruled here and there in Pali whose main places then were Dwarahat and Lakhanpur. In this way this extensive empire got divided into small parts.[12]
Arrival of Chand Dynasty
[edit]Besides these petty kings of Katyuri family, during the time between the fall of the Katyuris and the arrival of the Chands, the region of Kumaun lay divided into petty kingdoms. Faldakol and Dhaniyakot lay under the authority of a Khati Rajput who regarded him as belonging to Solar dynasty. Chaugarkha was ruled by a Padiyar king whose capital was Padyarkot. In the paragana of Gangolihat ruled a Mankoli king. He had come from Piuthan in modern day Nepal and regarded himself as a Rajput of Lunar dynasty. After ruling for seven to eight generations they being defeated by the Chands returned to the place where their descendants still exist. Kota, Chhakhata and Kutauli came under the jurisdiction of the Khas kings. Sor, Sira, Darma, Askot, and Johar all were annexed to the Kingdom of Doti. The first Chand king Som Chand also established a petty kingdom in Kali Kumaon after subjugating the powerful social groups there. [2][3]
When the sun of the fortune of the Emperors of Solar dynasty ( Katyuris) in Kumaun set and at places small feudatory kings began to rule, the people said that the sun of Kumaun had set and there was night and darkness all over Kumaun. But on the arrival of the Chands, people started saying that there was night in Kumaun as the sun had set, but one thing good now is that now moonlight has appeared i.e. kings of Lunar dynasty (Chands) have come. That there is again light in the earth sunk in darkness.[2]
Chand Dynasty
[edit]Sometime in the 8th century, the Chand Dynasty was established by King Som Chand, He continued to call his state Kurmanchal, and established its capital in Champawat or Kali Kumaon. At that time Kumaon was going through a period of fragmentation, and the Chands ruled as petty kings. They slowly developed into a major power of the Himalayas and near after 1450 had unified Kumaon under King Ratna Chand.
The Baleshwar and Nagnath temples were built in this city during the 11th and 12th centuries.[12] During this period, learning and new forms of painting (the pahari school of art) developed.[11]
_Almora,_1815.jpg)
Many pilgrims came to the court of Baz Bahadur Chand to complain about the Huniyas (The area from northwestern Tibet till the borders of Ladakh at that time was known as Hundesh, and Tibetans there were called Huniyas) robbing them on their pilgrimage to Kailash Manasarovar, and committing atrocities. Being quite religious, he could not stand it, and decided to bring an end to this problem.
Baz Bahadur Chand himself led his army through Juhar Pass and entered Tibetan territory, which was then under Khoshut Khanate. He captured the Fort of Taklakot in 1670. This was the first time in history that an Indian king had captured this stronghold of Tibet. [13]
There was no strong response from the higher Tibetan authority to this intrusion, and although it is not very well documented, civil war and unrest, Mongol conquest and rise of regional warlords in Tibetan territory could be a probable cause.
The time period of King Baz Bahadur Chand's reign as well as that of his successors till two to three generations has been considered by many as the Golden Age of Kumaon region.
Conflicts and battles
[edit]
King Gyan Chand, the King of Kumaon, ascended the throne in 1698. In 1699 he invaded Garhwal, which was under the King Fateh Shah . He crossed Ramganga River and plundered Sabli, Khatli, and Sainchar. In 1701, Fateh Shah entered in Chaukot (now Syalde region with 3 part, Talla Chaukot (lower), Malla Chaukot (Upper) and Bichla Chaukot (middle)) and Gewar Valley (region of Chaukhutia, Masi, and Dwarahat) as reply. The Kumaonis defeated the Garhwalis in the Battle of Duduli (near Melchauri in Garhwal). In 1707, the Kumaoni forces annexed Juniyagarh in Bichla Chaukot (Syalde), and razed the old fort at Chandpur Garhi, the capital of Garhwal Kingdom. On 13 July 1715, Kumaoni troops clashed with Garhwali troops that were moving to Moradabad and Bareilly.[14] An ally of the Mughal Empire, Kumaon was encouraged to continue fighting Garwhal until they submitted to the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was against Garwhal because of their funding of rebels in Punjab. Twice in the second year of Farrukh Siyar’s reign (between 25 July and 19 December 1713) the Kumaon chief sent him booty obtained in the battles against the combined forces of the Srinagar-Garhwal chief and his Jat and Gujar allies. In early 1715, Kumaon finally captured Srinagar from Garwhal, sending Garwhali chiefs into Mughal courts. In 1742 Ali Mohammed Khan of Rohilkhand invaded Kumaon and annexed Kashipur, Rudrapur, and two other Kumaoni parganas.[14]
Few years Later, Jagat Chand (1708–20), invaded Garhwal, defeated the ruling King of Garhwal and expelled him from Srinagar, then capital of Garhwal Kingdom. After ruling for few years he bestowed the Kingdom on a Brahmin.[15]
Nepalese invasion and its defeat
[edit]In the latter half of the 18th century, the power of Kumaon was on decline, as the prince Mahendra Chand was unable to properly administer the country and conflicts with other neighbouring kingdoms, natural calamities, intrigues and dissensions further weakened the Kingdom.
Seeing this opportunity, in 1791 the Kingdom of Nepal invaded Kumaon. Gorkha Army led by the Gorkha commanders Bahadur shah, Kazi Jagjit Pande, Amar Singh Thapa and Sur Singh Thapa set to attack Kumaon from Doti. One regiment went from Kali Kumaon to Sor, another set out to capture Visung. When the news of the sudden invasion reached Almora, Mahendra Chand summoned his troops and taking a contingent with him moved towards Gangolihat.
Amar Singh Thapa with his troops attacked the Kumaoni contingent but was defeated and escaped. However few hours later he came back with a bigger army and better preparation, tottaly surrounded Kumaon from the west. Mahendra Chand hearing the defeat and death of his uncle, Diwan (Prime Minister) Lal Singh, became nervous and fled, thus Gorkhas finding their path clear reached and captured Almora and Kumaon was annexed to the Kingdom of Nepal.[4]Kingdom of Garhwal was also annexed by the Gorkhas in 1804.
24-year Gorkha Occupation of Kumaon (Gorkhyol)
[edit]The Gorkha rule over Kumaon lasted for 24 years and has been termed as "Cruel and Oppressive"[2][3] in a number of texts. Kumaon and Garhwal were made into governorates within the Kingdom of Nepal. Kumaonis were not given political representation and all offices were occupied by Nepali administrators. Kumaonis and Garhwalis alike were mistreated. It is to be noted that the Gorkhas were not keen on integrating Kumaon and Garhwal fully into the Kingdom of Nepal, or providing for the people there, rather they only though of the conquered territories as frontier states, to maintain distance from the East India Company.[2][3]
The Gorkhas were also involved in slave trade consisting of Kumaonis and Garhwalis, who were captured and sold in the markets.[2] Excessive taxation, slavery and mistreatment made the Gorkhas unpopular in Kumaon and Garhwal, whose cruel treatment towards the natives is still bitterly remembered today. The justice system of the Gorkhas was nonsensical and illogical, based on superstitions, which failed to provide justice to those who needed it.
The only architectural advancements during the period was a road connecting Kali River to Srinagar via Almora.[2]
Kumaon Province
[edit]The Gorkhas were defeated by the East India Company in Anglo-Nepalese War and were forced to cede Kumaon to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816. The Kumaon region was joined with the eastern half of the Garhwal region and was governed as a chief-commissionership, also known as the Kumaon Province, on the non-regulation system.[16] In seventy years it was governed by three successive administrators: Mr. Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay. The British set up a small administrative unit to govern the region, known as Patwari Halka.[17]
Government
[edit]It can be easily discerned that the first Chand king Raja Som Chand was in favour of division of power and acted accordingly. He created a party system in Kumaon with a strong say and influence in the decision of the King. He formed two factions giving representation to all four castes. The leader of the faction, rather than being a hereditary post , was a post given on the basis of knowledge, influence and experience. The post of Diwan (Prime Minister) was automatically given to the one who had majority support within the factions, although exceptions were seen many time. It would not be wrong to say that some form of constitutional administration was practiced in Kumaon. Even if the kings of the Chand Dynasty were absolute monarchs, they had to consider the opinions of the factions and the elected budhas (elders) to maintain their support since they could not risk going against such influential group of people. This constitutional system was laid out by Raja Som Chand to prevent any one certain group or individual from gaining too much power. But this system also gave way to rivalries within factions and lessening of the power of the king, which is evident looking at the history of puppet monarchs in Kumaon.
The Maharaja of Kumaon had absolute authority, but was traditionally influenced by the opinions of the Mahar faction and the Fartyal faction, who rightfully had a say in the decisions of the Maharaja. The Maharaja appointed the Diwan (Prime Minister) officially, but the post was automatically given to whoever had the majority support within the two factions.
The Seal of the Maharaja was necessary to issue any order on paper or copper - plates. But the Maharaja could only authorize the orders if the Diwan found it just and fair. The Maharaj couldn't give out official orders by himself.[2][3]
Officers and managers were appointed by the Maharaja in his Durbar by the recommendation of the Diwan. The posts of deputy - diwan and the other ministers were handed out to the most influential and able people. These posts were not usually hereditary but sometimes were occupied by one family or clan for a long time.[2]
Since the rulers were mostly religious, rajgurus and purohits were appointed to give the Maharaja spiritual and administrative advice. These posts were usually occupied by a single family. They conducted all religious ceremonies related to the Maharaja, the Diwan or the factions.[2]
The Maharaja tried to maintain a good public image and sometimes were open to criticism from general public, although this largely depended on the individual. They also had to maintain the support of regional administrators and the factions since they were strong enough to depose the Maharaja.
Royal Seal
[edit]The copper-plates of Chand kings were called katardar as the kings instead of putting their signatures made the mark of their dagger on them. Their names used to be engraved in the beginning of the copper-plate or the paper document.[2]
The leader who commanded majority within the Mahar faction and Fartyal faction was appointed the Diwan (Prime Minister).
The Diwan appointed the kardars (Administrators or Revenue Officers). The Maharaja appointed the rajguru (Royal Priest) and the purohits (Royal Chaplains). The karbaris (Managers) were also appointed by the king, probably with the advice of his Diwan. Including these, the royal Durbar (court) consisted of mantris (ministers), assigned various roles.
The king also kept faujdars or kiladars (Chief or Governor of a fort or castle). Older people say that at the time of chala (mutiny) or an attack when the sound of the drum was produced in the royal fort, the leaders of all the four alas (forts), the faujdars came to the capital from all the four sides, accompanied by their army, nishan, flag and musical instruments.
Sayanas, Budhas and Thokdaars
[edit]Sayanas were responsible for depositing the collected taxes in the royal treasury. Sayanas of the Manral caste were eligible to have nakkaras and symbols. Later on king Baz Bahadur Chand gave this right to budhas of Johar and Darma also. Thokdars were the village chiefs and powerful zamindars (Aristocrats) who taxed their village residents to pay it to the king. Thokdars were dynasty based but could be removed or appointed to the kings liking. Their unanimous support was important for a king to keep his position. Thokdar was somewhat less respected as compared to sayanas and budhas. He was not entitled to have his drum, nakkara and symbol and he was not consulted in the state administration. But these three types of officials were bound to help in military and home affairs.
Padhan
[edit]There was a padhan in every village who was below the ranks of the above three. He used to collect land revenue. He also discharged the functions of police in the village. He had to remain under the subjugation of sayana who was born in his own village.
Kotal and Pahari
[edit]There was kotal under padhan who could be maintained or expelled by padhan. He used to work as a clerk and an assistant of padhan. Besides these two officials there was pahari (security guard) in every village who usually used to work as the peon of the village. He used to manage the postal affairs of the village. Besides collection of the grains, the patrolling of the village etc. were also his duties. He mostly belonged to the shudra community.
The copper-plate issued in the time of the Chand kings was signed by all the officers, which indicates the sense of responsibility of the officers.
Kurmanchal had been independent till the arrival of the English and the Gorkhalis and how a small mountain kingdom carried on its administration, is praiseworthy. Those days meagre facilities existed for supervision around and there was not such a prevalence of learning that experts or learned people might have been in the state administration.[2]
Foreign Influence
[edit]When the 50th king of Kumaon Raja Baz Bahadur Chand reinstated Kumaoni authority over Terai after meeting Emperor Aurangzeb and came back to Almora, he introduced those customs which he had seen in Muslim courts and also in those of other kings. Naubat (kettle drums) and nakkarchikhanas (place where drummers sit to beat the drums) were built. Bearers of asa (a staff covered with golden silver plate) and ballam (a mace so prepared), the chopdars (Ceremonial Guards) were also appointed. The king had brought with him a few mace-bearers, drummers, mirasis, clowns and mimes from the plains. A brahmin confectioner was also engaged to prepare sweets for the palace.[2]
Symbol
[edit]Emblem
[edit]The cow was the royal emblem of the Chand Dynasty of Kumaon. Cows are considered sacred in Hinduism, the religion of the Chand kings and the Kumaoni people. The cow was used in the emblem, seal, flag and coinage of the Chand Dynasty. It was also used to symbolise Kumaon, like saying "Victory to the cow" would mean "Victory to Kumaon".[2]
Slaughtering of cows was strictly prohibited in the Kingdom of Kumaon, and was punishable by death.[2][3]
Seal of the Maharaja of Kumaon
[edit]The copper-plates of Chand kings were called katardar as the kings instead of putting their signatures made the mark of their dagger on them. Their names used to be engraved in the beginning of the copper-plate. The name of chief officers as well were engraved in the copper plates. This very rule was followed while putting signatures on papers also.[2]
This can be seen in the official papers from the reign of Baz Bahadur Chand and Udyot Chand.
Culture
[edit]
Language
[edit]The Kumaoni language is one of the Central Pahari languages. For a number of reasons, Kumaoni usage is shrinking rapidly. UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger designates Kumaoni as a language in the unsafe category which requires consistent conservation efforts.[18]
Cuisine
[edit]Kumaoni cuisine is the food of the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, India. Kumaoni food is simple and nutritious, suited to the harsh environment of the Himalayas.
Rulers
[edit]See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 37, 147. ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Dutt Pandey, Badri (1937). Kumaon Ka Itihas [History Of Kumaon] (in Hindi) (1st Volume ed.). Almora, Uttarakhand, India: Almora Book Depot (published January 1993). ISBN 978-8190008655.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Atkinson, Edwin T. (Edwin Thomas), 1840-1890. (1990). Himalayan Gazetter. Cosmo. OCLC 183008777.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e Omacanda Hāṇḍā (2002). History of Uttaranchal. Indus Publishing. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-81-7387-134-4. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ Gokhale, Namita (2015). Mountains Echoes: Reminiscences of Kumaoni Women. Roli Books Private Limited. ISBN 978-93-5194-180-4. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- ^ James Prinsep (Editor)Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 6, Part 2 (1837), p. 653, at Google Books
- ^ John McClelland Some inquiries in the province of Kemaon: relative to geology, and other branches of Natural Science (1835) at Google Books
- ^ John Forbes Royle Illustrations of the botany and other branches of the natural history of the Himalayan Mountains and of the flora of Cashmere (1839), p. 108, at Google Books
- ^ KAFALTIA, HIMANSHU KAFALTIA, GUNJAN SHARMA (18 September 2019). A Comprehensive Study of UTTARAKHAND. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-64650-605-7.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "History of Kumaon". Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ a b Pande, B. D. (1993). History of Kumaon: English version of "Kumaon ka itihas". Almora, U.P., India: Shyam Prakashan: Shree Almora Book Depot
- ^ a b c "History Of Kumaon – Brahmins From Kumaon Hills". Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ Pandey, Badri Dutt (1993). History of Kumaon (Volume 1 ed.). Almora, Uttarakhand, India: Shree Almora Book Depot. ISBN 81-900 209-4-3.
- ^ a b The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India Awadh and Punjab 1707-48 Muzaffar Alam
- ^ Hunter, William Wilson, 1840-1900. (1885–1887). The imperial gazetteer of India ... Trübner. OCLC 24165771.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Robert Montgomery Martin, History of the Possessions of the Honourable East India Company, Volume 1, pg. 107
- ^ Brief History of the Kumaon Regiment from the official site of the Indian Army
- ^ "UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". UNESCO. Retrieved 3 September 2010.