Jump to content

Kefir

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kefiran)
"Kefir grains" redirects here. For water kefir grains, see Tibicos.
For the beverage known as water kefir, see Tibicos. For other uses, see Kaffir (disambiguation).

Kefir
Plain milk kefir being poured
Alternative namesMilk kefir, gıpı ayran, qundəps, búlgaros
Main ingredientsMilk and kefir grains
Slavic homemade foods kolach and korovai served alongside kvass and kefir

Kefir (/kəˈfɪər/ kə-FEER;[1][2] alternative spellings: kephir or kefier; Russian: кефир; Karachay-Balkar: гыпы) is a fermented milk drink similar to a thin yogurt or ayran that is made from kefir grains, a specific type of mesophilic symbiotic culture. It is prepared by inoculating the milk of cows, goats, or sheep with kefir grains.[3]

Kefir is a common breakfast, lunch or dinner drink consumed in countries of western Eurasia. Kefir is consumed at any time of the day, such as alongside European pastries like zelnik (zeljanica), burek and banitsa/gibanica, as well as being an ingredient in cold soups.

Origin and etymology

[edit]

Kefir has been found in graves in the Bronze Age Xiaohe Cemetery, dating back 3,600 years.[4] The word kefir, known in Russia, Central European and Eastern European countries since at least 1884,[5] is of North Caucasian origin.[6][7] A Russian borrowing in English, its ultimate origin is unknown, though one theory is that the word comes from köpür in Old Turkic.[7] More likely is another Caucasian origin; compare Georgian კეფირი (k’epiri), Mingrelian ქიფური (kipuri), Ossetian къӕпы (k’æpy), and Karachay-Balkar гыпы (gıpı). The p to f transformation may indicate possible transmission to Russian through Arabic كِفِير (kifīr), which would have served as a lingua franca in the Muslim parts of the Caucasus.

Traditional kefir was made in goatskin bags that were hung near a doorway; the bags would be knocked by anyone passing through to keep the milk and kefir grains well mixed.[8] In Karachay-Balkar, gıpı has a connection with gıpıt (wineskin). It was under the name wineskin that Karachay kefir was distributed in the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century.[9][10] Kefir spread from the former Soviet Union to the rest of Europe, Canada, Japan, and the United States by the early 21st century.[6][11][12] It has become known in parts of Latin America as búlgaros, or "Bulgarians".

Bekmyrza Baychorov and Irina Sakharova—the first distributors of kefir to Russia

The homeland of kefir is considered to be "the vicinity of Elbrus, along the upper reaches of the Kuban".[13]

Fermentation and kefir grain formation

[edit]
Kefir grains, a symbiotic matrix of bacteria and yeasts

Traditional kefir is fermented at ambient temperatures, generally overnight. Fermentation of the lactose yields a sour, carbonated, slightly alcoholic beverage, with a consistency and taste similar to drinkable yogurt.[14]

The kefir grains initiating the fermentation are initially created by auto-aggregations of Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Kazachstania turicensis, where multiple biofilm producers cause the surfaces to adhere which form a three dimensional microcolony.[15][16][17] The biofilm is a matrix of heteropolysaccharides called kefiran, which is composed of equal proportions of glucose and galactose.[6] It resembles small cauliflower grains, with color ranging from white to creamy yellow. A complex and highly variable symbiotic community can be found in these grains, which can include acetic acid bacteria (such as Acetobacter aceti and A. rasens), yeasts (such as Candida kefyr and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and a number of Lactobacillus species, such as L. parakefiri, L. kefiranofaciens (and subsp. kefirgranum[18]), L. kefiri,[19] etc.[6] While some microbes predominate, Lactobacillus species are always present.[20] The microbe flora can vary between batches of kefir due to factors such as the kefir grains rising out of the milk while fermenting or curds forming around the grains, as well as temperature.[21] Additionally, Tibetan kefir composition differs from that of the Russian kefir, Irish kefir, Taiwan kefir and Turkey fermented beverage with kefir.[6] In recent years, the use of freeze-dried starter culture has become common due to stability of the fermentation result, because the species of microbes are selected in laboratory conditions, as well as easy transportation.[22][23][24]

During fermentation, changes in the composition of ingredients occur. Lactose, the sugar present in milk, is broken down mostly to lactic acid by the lactic acid bacteria, which results in acidification.[20] Propionibacteria further break down some of the lactic acid into propionic acid (these bacteria also carry out the same fermentation in Swiss cheese). Other substances that contribute to the flavor of kefir are pyruvic acid, acetic acid, diacetyl and acetoin (both of which contribute a "buttery" flavor), citric acid, acetaldehyde, and amino acids resulting from protein breakdown.[25]

Decreased lactose content

[edit]

During the fermentation process, bacteria and yeast break lactose down into glucose and galactose.[26] As a result of the fermentation, lactose levels are decreased by 20–30% with respect to the initial lactose levels present in the milk.[27] One study found that when people with lactose intolerance consumed the same amount of lactose in milk, kefir or yoghurt products, the latter two showed significantly reduced symptoms of lactose intolerance during the first 8 hours after consumption.[28] This result suggests that yoghurt and kefir might be suitable for people with lactose intolerance. However, the long-term impact of kefir consumption on lactose intolerance has not been studied. It has also been shown that fermented milk products have a slower transit time than milk, which may further improve lactose digestion.[29]

Alcohol content

[edit]

Kefir contains ethanol.[30] The level of ethanol in kefir can vary by production method. A 2016 study of kefir sold in Germany showed an ethanol level of only 0.02 g per litre, which was attributed to fermentation under controlled conditions allowing the growth of Lactobacteria only, but excluding the growth of other microorganisms that form much higher amounts of ethanol.[31] A 2008 study of German commercial kefir found levels of 0.002–0.005% of ethanol.[32] Kefir produced by small-scale dairies in Russia in the early 20th century had 1–2% ethanol.[32]

Nutrition

[edit]

Composition

[edit]

Kefir products contain nutrients in varying amounts from negligible to significant, including dietary minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids, and conjugated linoleic acid,[33][34] At a pH of 4.2 – 4.6,[35] kefir is composed mainly of water and by-products of the fermentation process, including carbon dioxide and ethanol.[36]

Several dietary minerals are found in kefir, such as calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper, molybdenum, manganese, and zinc in amounts that have not been standardized to a reputable nutrient database.[36][34] Kefir contains vitamins in variable amounts, including vitamin A, vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B9 (folic acid), vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E.[36] Essential amino acids found in kefir include methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, lysine, and valine.[36][34]

Microbiota

[edit]

Probiotic bacteria found in kefir products include: Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, Lactococcus lactis, and Leuconostoc species.[20][33][37] Lactobacilli in kefir may exist in concentrations varying from approximately 1 million to 1 billion colony-forming units per milliliter, and are the bacteria responsible for the synthesis of the polysaccharide kefiran.[3]

In addition to bacteria, kefir often contains strains of yeast that can metabolize lactose, such as Kluyveromyces marxianus, Kluyveromyces lactis, and Saccharomyces fragilis, as well as strains of yeast that do not metabolize lactose, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and Kazachstania unispora.[20] The nutritional significance of these strains is unknown.

Production

[edit]
90 grams of kefir grains
Kefir production

Modern kefir is made by adding kefir grains to milk typically at a proportion of 2–5% grains-to-milk. The mixture is then placed in a corrosion-resistant container, such as a glass jar, and stored preferably in the dark to prevent degradation of light-sensitive vitamins. After a period between 12 and 24 hours of fermentation at mild temperature, ideally 20–25 °C (68–77 °F),[25] the grains are strained from the milk using a corrosion-resistant (stainless steel or plastic) utensil and kept to produce another batch. During the fermentation process the grains enlarge and eventually split forming new units.

The resulting fermented liquid may be drunk, used in recipes, or kept aside in a sealed container for additional time to undergo a secondary fermentation. Because of its acidity the beverage should not be stored in reactive metal containers such as aluminium, copper, or zinc, as these may leach into it over time. The shelf life, unrefrigerated, is up to thirty days.[38]

The Russian method permits production of kefir on a larger scale and uses two fermentations. The first step is to prepare the cultures by inoculating milk with 2–3% grains as described. The grains are then removed by filtration and 1–3% of the resulting liquid mother culture is added to milk and fermented for 12 to 18 hours.[39]

Kefir can be made using freeze-dried cultures commonly available in powder form from health food stores. A portion of the resulting kefir can be saved to be used a number of times to propagate further fermentations but ultimately does not form grains.

In Taiwan, researchers were able to produce kefir in a laboratory using microorganisms isolated from kefir grains. They report that the resulting kefir drink had chemical properties similar to homemade kefir.[40]

Milk types

[edit]

Kefir grains will ferment the milk from most mammals and will continue to grow in such milk. Typical animal milks used include cow, goat, and sheep, each with varying organoleptic (flavor, aroma, and texture) and nutritional qualities. Raw milk has been traditionally used.

Milk sugar is not essential for the synthesis of the polysaccharide that makes up the grains (kefiran), and rice hydrolysate is a suitable alternative medium.[41] Additionally, kefir grains will reproduce when fermenting soy milk, although they will change in appearance and size due to the differing proteins available to them.[42]

A variation of kefir grains that thrive in sugary water also exists, see water kefir (or tibicos), and can vary markedly from milk kefir in both appearance and microbial composition.

Culinary

[edit]
The Lithuanian soup šaltibarščiai, also known as "cold borscht", popular in Eastern European countries

As it contains Lactobacillus bacteria, kefir can be used to make a sourdough starter.[43] It is also useful as a buttermilk substitute in baking. Kefir is one of the main ingredients in cold borscht soup in Lithuania, also known in Poland as Lithuanian cold soup (chłodnik litewski), and other countries. The kefir-based soup okroshka is common across the former Soviet Union. Kefir may be used in place of milk on cereal, granola, milkshakes, salad dressing, ice cream, smoothies and soup.

In Estonia, kefir is also often mixed with kama and eaten as a snack or a quick breakfast.[44]

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Golembiewski, Kate (25 September 2024). "World's Oldest Cheese Stood Alone for 3,600 Years". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 September 2024.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "kefir". Oxford Dictionaries.
  2. ^ kefir Archived 25 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine. dictionary.reference.com
  3. ^ a b Altay F, Karbancıoglu-Güler F, Daskaya-Dikmen C, Heperkan D (October 2013). "A review on traditional Turkish fermented non-alcoholic beverages: microbiota, fermentation process and quality characteristics". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 167 (1): 44–56. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.06.016. PMID 23859403.
  4. ^ Liu, Yichen; Miao, Bo; Li, Wenying; Hu, Xingjun; Bai, Fan; Abuduresule, Yidilisi; Liu, Yalin; Zheng, Zequan; Wang, Wenjun; Chen, Zehui; Zhu, Shilun; Feng, Xiaotian; Cao, Peng; Ping, Wanjing; Yang, Ruowei; Dai, Qingyan; Liu, Feng; Tian, Chan; Yang, Yimin; Fu, Qiaomei (2024). "Bronze Age cheese reveals human-Lactobacillus interactions over evolutionary history". Cell. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2024.08.008.
  5. ^ "Origin of KEFIR". Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online. 27 April 2023. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
  6. ^ a b c d e Prado MR, Blandón LM, Vandenberghe LP, Rodrigues C, Castro GR, Thomaz-Soccol V, Soccol CR (30 October 2015). "Milk kefir: composition, microbial cultures, biological activities, and related products". Frontiers in Microbiology. 6: 1177. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01177. PMC 4626640. PMID 26579086.
  7. ^ a b "kefir". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  8. ^ Willey JM, Sherwood L, Woolverton CJ, Prescott LM, Harley JP (2008). Prescott, Harley, and Klein's Microbiology (7th ed.). London: McGraw–Hill. p. 1040. ISBN 978-0-07-110231-5.
  9. ^ Ibragim Shamanov (26 April 2006). "Milk. How much there is in this word..." Elbrusoid. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
  10. ^ Karaketov; Sabanchiev (2014). Karachays. Balkars. Moscow: .Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay RAS. Science. ISBN 978-5-02-038043-1.
  11. ^ Sando L (September 2015). "Kefir Consumption—a Growing Culture". International Milk Genomics Consortium. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
  12. ^ Arslan S (26 November 2014). "A review: chemical, microbiological and nutritional characteristics of kefir". CyTA – Journal of Food. 13 (3): 340–345. doi:10.1080/19476337.2014.981588.
  13. ^ Мусаевич, Мизиев, Исмаил (7 March 2010). История Балкарии и Карачая в трудах Исмаила Мизиева: В 3 т. (in Russian). Нальчик: Издательство М. и В. Котляровых. ISBN 978-5-93680-337-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Kowsikowski F, Mistry V (1997). Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. Vol. I (3rd ed.). Westport, Conn.: FV Kowsikowski. ISBN 978-0-9656456-0-7.
  15. ^ Wang SY, Chen KN, Lo YM, Chiang ML, Chen HC, Liu JR, Chen MJ (December 2012). "Investigation of microorganisms involved in biosynthesis of the kefir grain". Food Microbiology. 32 (2): 274–85. doi:10.1016/j.fm.2012.07.001. PMID 22986190.
  16. ^ Wyder MT, Meile L, Teuber M (September 1999). "Description of Saccharomyces turicensis sp. nov., a new species from kefyr". Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 22 (3): 420–5. Bibcode:1999SyApM..22..420W. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(99)80051-4. PMID 10553294.
  17. ^ Jong-Hwa Kim; Kiyoung Kim; Rungravee Kanjanasuntree; Wonyong Kim (2019). "Kazachstania turicensis CAU Y1706 ameliorates atopic dermatitis by regulation of the gut–skin axis". Journal of Dairy Science. 102 (4): 2854–2862. doi:10.3168/jds.2018-15849. PMID 30738679. S2CID 73448395.
  18. ^ Vancanneyt M, Mengaud J, Cleenwerck I, Vanhonacker K, Hoste B, Dawyndt P, et al. (March 2004). "Reclassification of Lactobacillus kefirgranum Takizawa et al. 1994 as Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens subsp. kefirgranum subsp. nov. and emended description of L. kefiranofaciens Fujisawa et al. 1988". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 54 (Pt 2): 551–556. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02912-0. PMID 15023974.
  19. ^ Federici F, Manna L, Rizzi E, Galantini E, Marini U (August 2018). Dennehy JJ (ed.). "Draft Genome Sequence of Lactobacillus kefiri SGL 13, a Potential Probiotic Strain Isolated from Kefir Grains". Microbiology Resource Announcements. 7 (4): e00937–18, e00937–18. doi:10.1128/MRA.00937-18. PMC 6256422. PMID 30533877.
  20. ^ a b c d de Oliveira Leite AM, Miguel MA, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS, Silva JT, Paschoalin VM (October 2013). "Microbiological, technological and therapeutic properties of kefir: a natural probiotic beverage". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 44 (2): 341–9. doi:10.1590/S1517-83822013000200001. PMC 3833126. PMID 24294220.
  21. ^ Ninane V, Berben G, Romne JM, Oger R (2005). "Variability of the microbial abundance of kefir grain starter cultivated in partially controlled conditions" (PDF). Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement. 5 (3): 191–194. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2010.
  22. ^ Kourkoutas Y, Kandylis P, Panas P, Dooley JS, Nigam P, Koutinas AA (September 2006). "Evaluation of freeze-dried kefir coculture as starter in feta-type cheese production". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (9): 6124–35. Bibcode:2006ApEnM..72.6124K. doi:10.1128/AEM.03078-05. PMC 1563647. PMID 16957238.
  23. ^ Mei J, Guo Q, Wu Y, Li Y (31 October 2014). Al-Ahmad A (ed.). "Microbial diversity of a Camembert-type cheese using freeze-dried Tibetan kefir coculture as starter culture by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e111648. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k1648M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111648. PMC 4216126. PMID 25360757.
  24. ^ Nikolaou A, Sgouros G, Mitropoulou G, Santarmaki V, Kourkoutas Y (January 2020). "Freeze-Dried Immobilized Kefir Culture in Low Alcohol Winemaking". Foods. 9 (2): 115. doi:10.3390/foods9020115. PMC 7073665. PMID 31973003.
  25. ^ a b Van Wyk J (2019). "12 – Kefir: The Champagne of Fermented Beverages". Fermented Beverages. 5: 473–527. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-815271-3.00012-9. ISBN 978-0-12-815271-3. S2CID 108073995.
  26. ^ Rosa, Damiana D.; Dias, Manoela M. S.; Grześkowiak, Łukasz M.; Reis, Sandra A.; Conceição, Lisiane L.; Peluzio, Maria do Carmo G. (June 2017). "Milk kefir: nutritional, microbiological and health benefits". Nutrition Research Reviews. 30 (1): 82–96. doi:10.1017/S0954422416000275. ISSN 0954-4224. PMID 28222814. S2CID 4644552. Approximately 30 % of milk lactose is hydrolysed by the β-galactosidase enzyme, turning lactose into glucose and galactose.
  27. ^ Irigoyen, A.; Arana, I.; Castiella, M.; Torre, P.; Ibáñez, F. C. (1 May 2005). "Microbiological, physicochemical, and sensory characteristics of kefir during storage". Food Chemistry. 90 (4): 613–620. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.04.021. ISSN 0308-8146. Lactose was consumed during the 24 h fermentation period, and lactose levels decreased by 20–25% with respect to the initial lactose levels present in the milk. Levels then held practically constant over the storage period. [28 days of storage at 5 ± 1 °C]
  28. ^ Hertzler, Steven R.; Clancy, Shannon M. (1 May 2003). "Kefir improves lactose digestion and tolerance in adults with lactose maldigestion". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (5): 582–587. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50111. ISSN 0002-8223. PMID 12728216. Archived from the original on 11 November 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2022. The breath hydrogen area under the curve (AUC) for milk (224±39 ppm · h) was significantly greater than for the plain yogurt (76±14 ppm · h, P<.001), the plain kefir (87±37 ppm · h, P<.001), and the flavored yogurt (76±14 ppm · h, P=.005). [...] The yogurts and kefirs all similarly reduced the perceived severity of flatulence by 54% to 71% relative to milk.
  29. ^ Farnworth ER (2005). "Kefir – a complex probiotic" (PDF). Food Science and Technology Bulletin: Functional Foods. 2 (1): 1–17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.583.6014. doi:10.1616/1476-2137.13938. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
  30. ^ Laureys D, De Vuyst L (April 2014). Griffiths MW (ed.). "Microbial species diversity, community dynamics, and metabolite kinetics of water kefir fermentation". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 80 (8): 2564–72. Bibcode:2014ApEnM..80.2564L. doi:10.1128/aem.03978-13. PMC 3993195. PMID 24532061.
  31. ^ Gorgus E, Hittinger M, Schrenk D (September 2016). "Estimates of Ethanol Exposure in Children from Food not Labeled as Alcohol-Containing". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 40 (7): 537–42. doi:10.1093/jat/bkw046. PMC 5421578. PMID 27405361.
  32. ^ a b Farnworth E (2008). Handbook of fermented functional foods (second ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-5328-9. OCLC 646745830.
  33. ^ a b Guzel-Seydim ZB, Kok-Tas T, Greene AK, Seydim AC (March 2011). "Review: functional properties of kefir". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 51 (3): 261–8. doi:10.1080/10408390903579029. PMID 21390946. S2CID 19963871.
  34. ^ a b c "Nutrition facts for fluid sheep milk, one US cup, 245 ml". Conde Nast, Nutritiondata.com, USDA Nutrient Database, Standard Reference, version 21. 2014. Archived from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
  35. ^ Odet G (1995). "Fermented Milks". IDF Bull. 300: 98–100.
  36. ^ a b c d Ahmed Z, Wang Y, Ahmad A, Khan ST, Nisa M, Ahmad H, Afreen A (2013). "Kefir and health: a contemporary perspective". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 53 (5): 422–34. doi:10.1080/10408398.2010.540360. PMID 23391011. S2CID 5166812.
  37. ^ Farnworth ER (4 April 2005). "Kefir-a complex probiotic" (PDF). Food Science and Technology Bulletin: Functional Foods. 2 (1): 1–17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.583.6014. doi:10.1616/1476-2137.13938. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
  38. ^ Motaghi M, Mazaheri M, Moazami N, Farkhondeh A, Fooladi MH, Goltapeh EM (1997). "Kefir production in Iran" (PDF). World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 13 (5): 579–581. doi:10.1023/A:1018577728412. S2CID 85138812. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2008.
  39. ^ "Fabrication of kefir". Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
  40. ^ Chen TH, Wang SY, Chen KN, Liu JR, Chen MJ (July 2009). "Microbiological and chemical properties of kefir manufactured by entrapped microorganisms isolated from kefir grains" (PDF). Journal of Dairy Science. 92 (7): 3002–13. doi:10.3168/jds.2008-1669. PMID 19528577. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
  41. ^ Maeda H, Zhu X, Suzuki S, Suzuki K, Kitamura S (August 2004). "Structural characterization and biological activities of an exopolysaccharide kefiran produced by Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens WT-2B(T)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52 (17): 5533–8. doi:10.1021/jf049617g. PMID 15315396. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  42. ^ Abraham AG, De Antoni GL (May 1999). "Characterization of kefir grains grown in cows' milk and in soya milk". The Journal of Dairy Research. 66 (2): 327–33. doi:10.1017/S0022029999003490. PMID 10376251. S2CID 32190162.
  43. ^ Zak, Zuza (2021). Amber & Rye: A Baltic Food Journey. Interlink Books. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-62-371900-5. To make this quintessential Baltic loaf, you'll need to get your sourdough starter under way three days beforehand (unless you already have one on the go, of course). I used to make mine from just rye flour and water, but in the Baltics I learnt to use something that has living cultures in it, like kefir or buttermilk.
  44. ^ Zak, Zuza (2021). Amber & Rye: A Baltic Food Journey. Interlink Books. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-62-371900-5. Estonians will often stir kama – usually a mixture of ground wheat, rye, barley and peas – into a glass of kefir, then either sweeten it or add salt to taste. It makes a quick, nutritious snack or speedy breakfast.
[edit]
Look up kefir in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kefir.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Kefir&oldid=1259533714"