Insects as food
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Insects as food or edible insects are insect species used for human consumption. Over 2 billion people are estimated to eat insects on a daily basis.[1] Globally, more than 2,000 insect species are considered edible, though far fewer are discussed for industrialized mass production and regionally authorized for use in food.[2][3][4][5] Many insects are highly nutritious, though nutritional content depends on species and other factors such as diet and age.[6][7] Insects offer a wide variety of flavors and are commonly consumed whole or pulverized for use in dishes and processed food products such as burger patties, pasta, or snacks.[8][9] Like other foods, there can be risks associated with consuming insects, such as allergic reactions.[10] As commercial interest in insects as food grows, countries are introducing new regulatory frameworks to oversee their production, processing, marketing, and consumption.[11]
Benefits
[edit]With over 2000 identified edible insects, there are many options for consumption. Insects may provide a sustainable option for protein sources containing 13-77% protein by dry weight. Some insects may also be used as a fat source boasting up to 67.25% lipids by dry weight. Insects can provide omega-6 and omega-3, iron (proportionally more iron than other major food sources like beef), and zinc. Besides nutrients, the energy obtained by eating insects can be similar to other food sources like beef and chicken depending on what kind of insect is eaten.[12]
There are also environmental benefits from using insects as a food source: Insects require significantly less feed, can be used in feed, and release fewer CO2 emissions than conventional animal food sources.[13] They can be used to address the issue of depleted agricultural lands as they don't need much space to be reared as compared to livestock. Additionally, food waste is a significant issue with 1/3 of food being wasted globally; Since insects can eat food waste, and they require less feed, they are a good option to address food waste.[14]
Insects may be a sustainable commercial farming option to support populations struggling with food security due to their nutrition and farming capacities, taking less room to cultivate than other protein sources.[13]
Edible insects
[edit]Frequently consumed insect species
[edit]Human consumption of 2096 different insect species has been documented.[3]
The table below ranks insect order by number and percentage of confirmed species consumed and presents each insect orders' percentage of known insect species diversity.[3][15][16] With the exceptions of orders Orthoptera and Diptera, there is close alignment between species diversity and consumption, suggesting that humans tend to eat those insects that are most available.[17]
Insect order | Common name | Number of confirmed species consumed by humans[3] | Percentage of insect species consumed by humans (%)[3] | Percentage of total insect species (%)[15] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Coleoptera | Beetles | 696 | 33 | 38 |
Lepidoptera | Butterflies, moths | 362 | 17 | 16 |
Hymenoptera | Bees, wasps, ants | 321 | 15 | 12 |
Orthoptera | Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets | 278 | 13 | 2 |
Hemiptera | Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects, true bugs | 237 | 11 | 10 |
Odonata | Dragonflies | 61 | 3 | 1 |
Blattodea | Termites, cockroaches | 59 | 3 | 1 |
Diptera | Flies | 37 | 2 | 15 |
Others | - | 45 | 2 | 6 |
Geography of insect consumption
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Edible_insects.png/250px-Edible_insects.png)
Insect species consumption varies by region due to differences in environment, ecosystems, and climate.[18][19] The number of insect species consumed by country is highest in equatorial and sub-tropical regions, a reflection of greater insect abundance and biodiversity observed at lower latitudes and their year-round availability.[19][17][20]
For a list of edible insects consumed locally see: List of edible insects by country.
Edible insects for industrialized mass production
[edit]To increase consumer interest in Western markets such as Europe and North America, insects have been processed into a non‐recognizable form, such as powders or flour.[21] Policymakers, academics,[4] as well as large-scale insect food producers such as Entomofarms in Canada, Aspire Food Group in the United States,[22] Protifarm and Protix in the Netherlands, and Bühler Group in Switzerland, focus on seven insect species suitable for human consumption as well as industrialized mass production:[5]
- Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) as larvae
- Lesser mealworms (Alphitobius diaperinus) as larvae, mostly marketed under the term buffalo worms.
Pancakes made from insect powder, served with strawberries and skyr - House cricket (Acheta domesticus)
- Tropical house cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus)
- European migratory locust (Locusta migratoria)
- Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)
- Housefly (Musca domestica)
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is collected to produce carmine, a red dye used for textiles and food. It was largely substituted with synthetic dies like alizarin. Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again,[23] with Peru being the largest producer, followed by Mexico, Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands.[24]
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Freeze-dried mealworms as food (or food ingredient)
-
Buffalo worms as food (or ingredient)
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House crickets as food (or ingredient)
-
Migratory locusts as food (or ingredient)
Nutritional profile
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mealworms_as_food_and_Buffaloworms_as_food-2395.jpg/220px-Mealworms_as_food_and_Buffaloworms_as_food-2395.jpg)
The nutritional profiles of edible insects are highly variable given the large number of species consumed.[7] In addition to species differences, nutritional content can be affected by geographic origin and production method (wild or farmed), diet, age, development stage, and sex.[25][7] For instance, female house crickets (Acheta domestica) contain more fat than males, while males contain more protein than females.[26]
Some insects (e.g. crickets, mealworms) are a source of complete protein and provide similar essential amino acid levels as soybeans, though less than casein.[27][28] They have dietary fiber, essential minerals, vitamins such as B12,[29] riboflavin and vitamin A, and include mostly unsaturated fat.[30][31]
Locusts contain between 8 and 20 milligrams of iron for every 100 grams of raw locust, whereas beef contains roughly 6 milligrams of iron in the same amount of meat.[citation needed] Crickets are also very efficient in terms of nutrients. For every 100 grams of substance crickets contain 12.9 grams of protein, 121 calories, and 5.5 grams of fat. Beef contains more protein, containing 23.5 grams in 100 grams of substance, but also has roughly triple the calories and four times the amount of fat as crickets do in 100 grams.[citation needed]
Nutritional value per 100 g |
Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) |
Buffalo worms (Alphitobius diaperinus) |
House crickets (Acheta domesticus) |
Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 550 kcal / 2303 kJ | 484 kcal / 2027 kJ | 458 kcal / 1918 kJ | 559 kcal / 2341 kJ |
Fat Of which saturated fatty acids |
37,2 g 9 g |
24,7 g 8 g |
18,5 g 7 g |
38,1 g 13,1 g |
Carbohydrates Of which sugars |
5,4 g 0 g |
6,7 g 0 g |
0 g 0 g |
1,1 g 0 g |
Protein | 45,1 g | 56,2 g | 69,1 g | 48,2 g |
Salt | 0,37 g | 0,38 g | 1,03 g | 0,43 g |
Organoleptic characteristics
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chapulines_snack_grasshopers.jpg/220px-Chapulines_snack_grasshopers.jpg)
The organoleptic characteristics of edible insects vary between species and are influenced by environment.[32] For instance, aquatic edible insects such as water boatmen (family Corixidae) and dragonfly larvae have a fish flavor, while diving beetles taste more like clams.[32][33][34] Environment is not always a predictor of flavor, as terrestrial edible insects may also exhibit fish-like flavors (e.g. crickets, grasshoppers).[33][34] Over 400 volatile compounds responsible for the aroma and flavor of edible insects have been identified.[8] Pheromone chemicals contribute to pungent aromas and flavors in some species and the presence of organic acids (like formic acid in ants) makes some species taste sour.[35] Organoleptic characteristics are dependent on the development stage of the insect (egg, larva, pupa, nymph, or adult) and may change significantly as an insect matures.[32] For example, texture can change from soft to crunchy as an insect develops from larva to adult due to increasing exoskeletal chitin.[32] Cooking method is considered the strongest influence on the final flavor of edible insects.[32][8] Wet-cooking methods such as scalding or steaming remove pheromones and odor compounds, resulting in a milder flavor, while dry-cooking methods such as frying and roasting introduce more complex flavors.[32][8][36]
The table below provides common flavor descriptors for a selection of edible insects.[33][35] Flavors will vary with preparation method (e.g. raw, dried, fried, etc.). Insect development stage is provided when possible.
Insect | Scientific name | Development stage | Flavor |
---|---|---|---|
Agave worm (white) | Aegiale hesperiaris[37] | Larvae | Cracklings |
Agave worm (red) | Comadia redtenbacheri[38] | Larvae | Spicy |
Ants | Family Formicidae | Adult | Sweet, nutty |
Carpenter ant | Camponotus spp. | Adult | Charred lemon |
Wood ant | Formica spp. | Adult | Kaffir lime |
Black witch moth | Ascalapha odorata | Larvae | Herring |
Cockroach | Order Blattodea | - | Mushroom |
Cricket | Superfamily Grylloidea | Adult | Fish |
Corn earworm | Helicoverpa zea | Larvae | Sweet corn |
Dragonfly | Infraorder Anisoptera | Larvae | Fish |
Grasshopper | Suborder Caelifera | Adult | Fish |
Honey bee | Apis spp. | Brood | Butter, milk, herbal, vegetal, meaty, mushroom |
Mealworm | Tenebrio molitor | - | Nutty (larvae); whole wheat bread (adult) |
Mealybug | Family Pseudococcidae | - | Fried potato |
Stinkbug | Family Pentatomidae | Adult | Apple |
Termite | Infraorder Isoptera | Adult | Nutty |
Treehopper | Family Membracidae | - | Avocado, zucchini |
Wasp | Suborder Apocrita | - | Pine nut |
Water boatmen | Family Corixidae | - | Caviar (egg); fish, shrimp (adult) |
Farming, production, and processing
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Cricket_Shelter_Modular_Edible_Insect_Farm_IMG_20200219_163454590.jpg/220px-Cricket_Shelter_Modular_Edible_Insect_Farm_IMG_20200219_163454590.jpg)
Edible insects are raised as livestock in specialized insect farms. In North American as well as European countries such as the Netherlands or Belgium, insects are produced under strict food law and hygiene standards for human consumption.[citation needed]
Conditions such as temperature, humidity, feed, water sources, and housing, vary depending on the insect species.[citation needed] The insects are raised from eggs to larvae status (mealworms, lesser mealworms) or to their mature form (crickets, locusts) in industrialized insect farms and then killed via temperature control.[39][40] Culled insects may be freeze-dried and packed whole, or pulverized to insect powder (insect flour) to be used in other food products such as baked goods or snacks.
In addition to nutritional composition and digestibility, insect species are selected for ease of rearing by the producer based on factors such as disease susceptibility, feed conversion efficiency, rate of development, and generational turnover.[41]
Insect food products
[edit]The following processed foods are produced in North America (including Canada), and the EU:
- Insect flour: Pulverized, freeze-dried insects (e.g., cricket flour).
- Insect burger: Hamburger patties made from insect powder / insect flour (mainly from mealworms or from house cricket) and other ingredients.[42]
- Insect fitness bars: Protein bars containing insect powder (mostly house crickets).
- Insect pasta: Pasta made of wheat flour, fortified with insect flour (house crickets or mealworms).
- Insect bread (Finnish Sirkkaleipä): Bread baked with insect flour (mostly house crickets).[43]
- Insect snacks: Crisps, flips or small snacks (bites) made with insect powder and other ingredients.[44]
Food and drink companies such as the Australian brewery Bentspoke Brewing Co and the South African startup Gourmet Grubb have introduced insect-based beer,[45] a milk alternative, and insect ice cream.[46]
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Insect energy bar made with processed crickets
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Insect snacks (bites) with cultivated cricket flour and oat
Food safety
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Risk_factors_associated_with_the_consumption_of_edible_insects.jpg/220px-Risk_factors_associated_with_the_consumption_of_edible_insects.jpg)
Like other foods, the consumption of insects presents health risks stemming from biological, toxicological, and allergenic hazards.[48][49] In general, insects harvested from the wild pose a greater risk than farmed insects, and insects consumed raw pose a greater risk than insects that are cooked before consumption.[48] Feed substrate and growing conditions are the main factors influencing the microbiological and chemical hazards of farmed insects.[50][51]
The table below combined the data from two studies[52][53] published in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety and summarized the potential hazards of the top five insect species consumed by humans.
Insect order | Common name | Hazard category | Potential hazard |
---|---|---|---|
Coleoptera | Beetle | Chemical | Hormones |
Cyanogenic substances | |||
Heavy metal contamination | |||
Lepidoptera | Silkworm | Allergic | |
Chemical | Thiaminase | ||
Honeycomb moth | Microbial | High bacterial count | |
Chemical | Cyanogenic substances | ||
Hymenoptera | Ant | Chemical | Antinutritional factors (tannin, phytate) |
Orthoptera | House cricket | Microbial | High bacterial count |
Hemiptera | Parasitical | Chagas disease | |
Diptera | Black soldier fly | Parasitical | Myiasis |
The hazards identified in the above table can be controlled in various ways. Allergens can be labelled on the package to avoid consumption by allergy-susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazards, whereas microbial and parasitical hazards can be controlled by cooking processes.[53]
As a further guarantee for consumers, quality labeling has been introduced by the Entotrust programme, an independent and voluntary product certification of insect-based foods, which allows producers to communicate the safety and sustainability of their activities.[54]
Challenges
[edit]There are challenges associated with the production, processing, and consumption of insects as food.[10]
Production
[edit]Mass production in the insect industry is a concern due to a lack of technology and funds to efficiently harvest and produce insects. The machinery would have to house proper enclosure for each life cycle of the insect as well as the temperature control as that is key for insect development.[55]
Processing
[edit]The availability of wild-harvested insects can be seasonally dependent.[56] This presents a challenge, as many wild-harvested insects have a short shelf life, sometimes of only a day or two.[57] Identifying methods of processing and storing that extend the shelf life of seasonal insects will improve the efficiency of their harvest and consumption.
Aversion
[edit]The concept of eating insects is generally taboo in Western cultures.[58] Backlash against using insects as food has also involved conspiracy theories regarding government control.[59]
Regulation and authorisation
[edit]EU
[edit]In the European Union, edible insects – whole or in parts, e.g., legs, wings, or heads – fall within the definition of novel food, given by the European Commission.[60] Dossiers for several insect species are currently under review by the European Food Safety Authority.
In August 2018, EFSA published a first risk profile for the house cricket as food.[61] According to a risk assessment published by EFSA on 13 January 2021, the yellow mealworm is safe for human consumption.[62][63] On 2 July 2021, EFSA published another scientific opinion stating that migratory locust in frozen, dried or ground state is safe for human consumption.[64] On 17 August 2021, EFSA published a safety assessment with view to house crickets (Acheta domesticus) stating that frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets are safe for consumption.[65] On 4 July 2022, EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze-dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus in larval state) for human consumption.[66]
Following EFSA's assessment, the European Commission has authorized the following edible insects as novel food in the EU:
- Dried Tenebrio molitor larvae (mealworms) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/882 of 1 June 2021 (in force on 22 June 2021).[67]
- Frozen, dried and powdered forms of migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021 (in force on 5 December 2021).[68]
- Frozen, dried and powdered forms of house cricket (Acheta domesticus) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/188 of 10 February 2022.[69]
- Frozen, paste, dried and powder forms of lesser mealworm larvae (Alphitobius diaperinus) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/58 of 5 January 2023.[70]
Switzerland
[edit]On 1 May 2017, Switzerland approved the following insect species as food:[71]
- House cricket (Acheta domesticus)
- European locust (Locusta migratoria)
- Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor as larvae)
Under certain conditions, these may be offered to consumers whole, pulverized, or processed in food products.
UK
[edit]After the Brexit transition period, the regulation regarding edible insects changed in the United Kingdom on 21 January 2021, making them non-marketable without authorization.[citation needed] Insect food products that had been on the market had to be recalled. Insect food products have to be authorized by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) in a novel food authorization process.[72][73] In February 2022, UK insect industry association Woven Network CIC submitted a first dossier for the authorization of house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as novel food to the FSA.[74]
USA and Canada
[edit]In the USA and Canada, insects for human consumption are not classified as novel food and the import and sale is permitted.[citation needed] In the US, insect food products must comply with FDA standards and food labelling regulations (including allergy risk labelling).[75]
Within the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act), the FDA states that "The term 'food' means (1) articles used for food or drink for man or other animals, (2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used for components of any such article."[76] Thus, with insects falling under said category, they must be safe and may not bear any added poisonous or added deleterious substance that is unsafe. Said items may not be prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions, and must be produced in accordance with current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), regulations for manufacturing/processing, packing, or holding human food.[77][78] The FD&C Act also includes requirements that pertain to the labeling of food and preventive controls, as applicable. Manufacturers have a responsibility to ensure that the food they produce for the United States market is safe and complies with the FD&C Act and FDA's implementing regulations.[2]
In Canada, insects are subject to the same standards and guidelines as other foods sold in stores or online.[79]
Singapore
[edit]Singapore Food Agency (SFA) has approved 16 species of insects, such as crickets, silkworms and grasshoppers, for human consumption in the second half of 2023.[80]
The approval of the insects for consumption will be subject to food safety requirements, including treatment processes to kill pathogens and ensuring that they are packed and stored safely to prevent contamination.[80]
Awareness
[edit]World Edible Insect Day, held on 23 October, was introduced by Belgian entrepreneur Chris Derudder in 2015 to raise awareness globally for the consumption of edible insects, with a focus on Europe, North America, and Australia.[81]
History
[edit]Insects have long been a part of the human diet, dating back to prehistoric times. Ancient Roman soldiers may have eaten insects like locusts when resources were low.[82]
See also
[edit]Footnotes
[edit]- ^ Pap, Fundacja (2018-03-05). "Expert: More than 2 billion people worldwide eat insects every day". Science in Poland. Retrieved 2022-02-27.
- ^ a b van Huis, Arnold; Van Itterbeeck, Van Itterbeeck; Klunder, Harmke (2013). Edible Insects: Future prospects for food and security (PDF). Rome: UN FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-107595-1.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ a b c d e Jongema, Yde (2017-04-01). "List of edible insects of the world (April 1, 2017)". Wageningen University & Research. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
- ^ a b Christos I Rumbos, Christos G Athanassiou (3 April 2021): ‘Insects as Food and Feed: If You Can't Beat Them, Eat Them!'—To the Magnificent Seven and Beyond. In: Journal of Insect Science, Volume 21, Issue 2, March 2021, 9, https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieab019.
- ^ a b van Huis, Arnold (2017-09-15). Insects As Food and Feed: From Production to Consumption. Wageningen Academic Publishers. ISBN 9789086862962.
- ^ Rumpold, Birgit A.; Schlüter, Oliver K. (2013). "Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 57 (5): 802–823. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201200735. PMID 23471778.
- ^ a b c van Huis, Arnold; Rumpold, Birgit; Maya, Cassandra; Roos, Nanna (2021-10-11). "Nutritional Qualities and Enhancement of Edible Insects". Annual Review of Nutrition. 41 (1): 551–576. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-041520-010856. ISSN 0199-9885. PMID 34186013. S2CID 235687857.
- ^ a b c d Perez-Santaescolastica, Cristina; De Winne, Ann; Devaere, Jolien; Fraeye, Ilse (2022). "The flavour of edible insects: A comprehensive review on volatile compounds and their analytical assessment". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 127: 352–367. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2022.07.011. S2CID 250938321.
- ^ Melgar-Lalanne, Guiomar; Hernández-Álvarez, Alan-Javier; Salinas-Castro, Alejandro (2019). "Edible Insects Processing: Traditional and Innovative Technologies". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 18 (4): 1166–1191. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12463. ISSN 1541-4337. PMID 33336989. S2CID 198255011.
- ^ a b Huis, Arnold (2022). "Edible insects: Challenges and prospects". Entomological Research. 52 (4): 161–177. doi:10.1111/1748-5967.12582. ISSN 1738-2297. S2CID 248275162.
- ^ Lähteenmäki-Uutela, A.; Marimuthu, S.B; Meijer, N. (2021-08-13). "Regulations on insects as food and feed: a global comparison". Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 7 (5): 849–856. doi:10.3920/JIFF2020.0066. ISSN 2352-4588. S2CID 234843309.
- ^ Tao, Jaynie; Li, Yao Olive (2018-03-06). "Edible insects as a means to address global malnutrition and food insecurity issues". Food Quality and Safety. 2 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyy001. ISSN 2399-1399.
- ^ a b Rodrigues Amorim Adegboye, Amanda; Bawa, Michael; Keith, Regina; Twefik, Sundus; Tewfik, Ihab (2021-12-31). "Edible Insects: Sustainable nutrient-rich foods to tackle food insecurity and malnutrition". World Nutrition. 12 (4): 176–189. doi:10.26596/wn.2021124176-189. ISSN 2041-9775.
- ^ Mikkola, Heimo (2020-01-29). Edible Insects. BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 978-1-78985-635-4.
- ^ a b Stork, Nigel E. (2018-01-07). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology. 63 (1): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 28938083. S2CID 23755007.
- ^ Huis, Arnold van (2013). Edible insects : future prospects for food and feed security. Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-107596-8. OCLC 868923724.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Cruz y Celis Peniche, Patricio (January 2022). "Drivers of insect consumption across human populations". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 31 (1): 45–59. doi:10.1002/evan.21926. ISSN 1060-1538. PMID 34644813. S2CID 238860260.
- ^ Harris, Marvin (1998). Good to eat : riddles of food and culture. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-015-3. OCLC 43638785.
- ^ a b Lesnik, Julie J. (2017). "Not just a fallback food: global patterns of insect consumption related to geography, not agriculture". American Journal of Human Biology. 29 (4): e22976. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22976. ISSN 1042-0533. PMID 28146300. S2CID 4578009.
- ^ Kishimoto-Yamada, Keiko; Itioka, Takao (October 2015). "How much have we learned about seasonality in tropical insect abundance since Wolda (1988)?: Seasonality in tropical insect abundance". Entomological Science. 18 (4): 407–419. doi:10.1111/ens.12134. S2CID 82175556.
- ^ Melgar-Lalanne, Guiomar; Hernández-Álvarez, Alan-Javier; Salinas-Castro, Alejandro (2019). "Edible Insects Processing: Traditional and Innovative Technologies". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 18 (4): 1166–1191. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12463. ISSN 1541-4337. PMID 33336989.
- ^ Carson, Erin (12 October 2017). "You're going to be eating crickets, so just get over it". Cnet. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018.
- ^ Liberato Portillo Martinez; Ana Lilia Vigueras Guzmán (1998-04-15). "Natural Enemies of Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa): Importance in Mexico". Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development. 3. Retrieved 28 March 2022.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Miller, Brittney J. (25 March 2022). "Cochineal, a red dye from bugs, moves to the lab". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-032522-1. Archived from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
- ^ Kulma, Martin; Kouřimská, Lenka; Homolková, Dana; Božik, Matěj; Plachý, Vladimír; Vrabec, Vladimír (2020-09-01). "Effect of developmental stage on the nutritional value of edible insects. A case study with Blaberus craniifer and Zophobas morio". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 92: 103570. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103570. ISSN 0889-1575. S2CID 225277178.
- ^ Kulma, Martin; Kouřimská, Lenka; Plachý, Vladimír; Božik, Matěj; Adámková, Anna; Vrabec, Vladimír (2019-01-30). "Effect of sex on the nutritional value of house cricket, Acheta domestica L." Food Chemistry. 272: 267–272. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.049. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 30309543. S2CID 52967371.
- ^ Yi, Liya; Lakemond, Catriona M. M.; Sagis, Leonard M. C.; Eisner-Schadler, Verena; van Huis, Arnold; van Boekel, Martinus A. J. S. (2013-12-15). "Extraction and characterisation of protein fractions from five insect species". Food Chemistry. 141 (4): 3341–3348. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.115. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 23993491.
- ^ Van Huis, Arnold (2015). "Edible insects contributing to food security?". Agriculture & Food Security. 4 (20). doi:10.1186/s40066-015-0041-5.
- ^ Schmidt, Anatol; Call, Lisa; Macheiner, Lukas; Mayer, Helmut K. (2018). "Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography". Food Chemistry. 281: 124–129. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.039. PMID 30658738. S2CID 58651702.
- ^ https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/10/eating-bugs-food_n_4726371.html?slideshow=true Here's Why You Should Start Eating (More) Bugs
- ^ FAO: Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Online: PDF Archived 2019-02-04 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kouřimská, Lenka; Adámková, Anna (2016-10-01). "Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects". NFS Journal. 4: 22–26. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2016.07.001. ISSN 2352-3646.
- ^ a b c d Ramos-Elorduy, Julieta (1998). Creepy crawly cuisine : the gourmet guide to edible insects. Peter Menzel, Nancy Esteban. Rochester, VT. ISBN 0-89281-747-X. OCLC 37966440.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b "Insects as Food | Nebraska Extension in Lancaster County". lancaster.unl.edu. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
- ^ a b c Mishyna, Maryia; Chen, Jianshe; Benjamin, Ofir (2020-01-01). "Sensory attributes of edible insects and insect-based foods – Future outlooks for enhancing consumer appeal". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 95: 141–148. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2019.11.016. ISSN 0924-2244. S2CID 214031663.
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- ^ Kawahara, Akito Y.; Martinez, Jose I.; Plotkin, David; Markee, Amanda; Butterwort, Violet; Couch, Christian D.; Toussaint, Emmanuel F. A. (2023-03-08). "Mezcal worm in a bottle: DNA evidence suggests a single moth species". PeerJ. 11: e14948. doi:10.7717/peerj.14948. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 10007961. PMID 36915657.
- ^ The Atlantic (2015-09-24): "The companies farming crickets for human consumption".
- ^ Forbes (2018-01-39): "Farming The Next Big Food Source: Crickets".
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- ^ Food Navigator (2018-10-12): Article on the insect burger by German start-up Bugfoundation.
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- ^ Bug Burger (2019-3-11): Future food now: Finnish Bugbites and Norwegian mealworm bread.
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- ^ Imathiu, Samuel (2020). "Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects". NFS Journal. 18: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2019.11.002. S2CID 213206080.
- ^ Schlüter, Oliver; Rumpold, Birgit; Holzhauser, Thomas; Roth, Angelika; Vogel, Rudi F.; Quasigroch, Walter; Vogel, Stephanie; Heinz, Volker; Jäger, Henry; Bandick, Nils; Kulling, Sabine; Knorr, Dietrich; Steinberg, Pablo; Engel, Karl-Heinz (2017). "Safety aspects of the production of foods and food ingredients from insects". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 61 (6): 1600520. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201600520. PMID 27623740. S2CID 29849021.
- ^ van der Fels-Klerx, H. J.; Camenzuli, L.; Belluco, S.; Meijer, N.; Ricci, A. (2018). "Food Safety Issues Related to Uses of Insects for Feeds and Foods: Food safety of insects for feed/food…". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 17 (5): 1172–1183. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12385. PMID 33350154. S2CID 91255789.
- ^ van der Spiegel, M.; Noordam, M.y.; van der Fels-Klerx, H.j. (2013-11-01). "Safety of Novel Protein Sources (Insects, Microalgae, Seaweed, Duckweed, and Rapeseed) and Legislative Aspects for Their Application in Food and Feed Production". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 12 (6): 662–678. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12032. PMID 33412718.
- ^ a b Belluco, Simone; Losasso, Carmen; Maggioletti, Michela; Alonzi, Cristiana C.; Paoletti, Maurizio G.; Ricci, Antonia (2013-05-01). "Edible Insects in a Food Safety and Nutritional Perspective: A Critical Review". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 12 (3): 296–313. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12014.
- ^ Lessard BD, Ponce-Reyes R (April 2021). "Edible insects. A roadmap for the strategic growth of an emerging industry"(PDF). [1] CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation). Australia’s National Science Agency.: 35.
- ^ Rumpold, B.A., & Schlüter O.K. (2013) Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 17, 1–11.
- ^ Tagawa, Kazuki; Hosoya, Tadatsugu; Hyakumura, Kimihiko; Suzuki, Dai; Yoshizawa, Satoshi; Praxaysombath, Bounthob (2022-04-18). "The effects of season, geography, and urbanization on the diversity of edible insects at food markets in Laos". PLOS ONE. 17 (4): e0267307. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1767307T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267307. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9015116. PMID 35436314.
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- ^ Guynup, Sharon. "For Most People, Eating Bugs Is Only Natural". National Geographic. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
- ^ Jingnan, Huo. "From 4chan to international politics, a bug-eating conspiracy theory goes mainstream". NPR. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
- ^ European Commission (2018-01-03): Questions and Answers: New Novel Food Regulation
- ^ European Food Safety Authority (28 August 2018): Novel foods: a risk profile for the house cricket (Acheta domesticus).
- ^ European Food Safety Authority (13 January 2021): Safety of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal.
- ^ Boffey, Daniel (2021-01-13). "Yellow mealworm safe for humans to eat, says EU food safety agency". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-01-15.
- ^ EFSA (2 July 2021): Safety of frozen and dried formulations from migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal. Vol. 19, Issue 7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6667.
- ^ EFSA (17 August 2021): Safety of frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal 2021;19(8):6779.
- ^ EFSA (4 July 2022): Safety of frozen and freeze-dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus larva) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal 2022;20(7):7325. doi: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7325
- ^ EU Commission (2 June 2021): Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/882 of 1 June 2021 authorising the placing on the market of dried Tenebrio molitor larva as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470.
- ^ EU Commission (15 November 2021): Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021 authorising the placing on the market of frozen, dried and powder forms of Locusta migratoria as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470.
- ^ EU Commission (11 February 2022): Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/188 of 10 February 2022 authorising the placing on the market of frozen, dried and powder forms of Acheta domesticus as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470.
- ^ EU Commission (6 January 2023): Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/58 of 5 January 2023 authorising the placing on the market of the frozen, paste, dried and powder forms of Alphitobius diaperinus larvae (lesser mealworm) as a novel food and amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470.
- ^ Bundesamt für Lebensmittelsicherheit und Veterinärwesen (2017-04-28): "Insects as food" (German only)
- ^ Food Manufacture (4 November 2021): Edible insects left in legal limbo.
- ^ Vice World News (28 October 2021): Edible Insects That Could Help Stop Climate Change Are Banned From Major Climate Summit.
- ^ Food Navigator/Oliver Morrison (2 February 2022): "A major milestone for the UK edible insect sector": UK edible insect makers hope for Novel Food approval by 2023.
- ^ Mariod, Abdalbasit Adam (2020): The Legislative Status of Edible Insects in the World. In: Mariod A.A. (eds) African Edible Insects As Alternative Source of Food, Oil, Protein and Bioactive Components. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32952-5_9.
- ^ "Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act" (PDF). p. 2. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
- ^ "Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act" (PDF). p. 5.
- ^ "Food Current Good Manufacturing Practice Modernization Report (2005)". Food and Drug Administration. 30 January 2020. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
- ^ Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2021-09-27). "Edible insects: what to know before biting into bugs". inspection.canada.ca. Retrieved 2023-02-11.
- ^ a b cue (2023-04-07). "Singapore to approve 16 species of insects like crickets and grasshoppers to be sold as food | The Straits Times". www.straitstimes.com. Retrieved 2023-04-09.
- ^ Edible Bug Farm (2015-10-03): Interview with Chris Derudder on WEID.
- ^ Olivadese, Marianna; Dindo, Maria Luisa (2023-08-04). "Edible Insects: A Historical and Cultural Perspective on Entomophagy with a Focus on Western Societies". Insects. 14 (8): 690. doi:10.3390/insects14080690. ISSN 2075-4450. PMC 10455489. PMID 37623400.
External links
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- FAO: Insects for food and feed
- European Food Safety Authority: Risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed
- Nova documentary "Edible Insects"
Further reading
[edit]- FAO (2021): Looking at edible insects from a food safety perspective. Challenges and opportunities for the sector. Rome. doi: https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4094en
- van Huis/Tomberlin (2017). Insects As Food and Feed: From Production to Consumption. Wageningen Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9086862962.
- Dossey, Morales-Ramos and Rojas. Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications.
- Shockley and Dossey (2014). "Insects for Human Consumption". Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms: 617–652. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-391453-8.00018-2. ISBN 9780123914538.
- Calder, Daniel. The Dietitian's Guide to Eating Bugs 2013 ebook [2] Archived 2016-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
- Dossey, Aaron (2013). "Why Insects Should Be in Your Diet". The Scientist. 27: 22–23.