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-{{Other uses}}
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-{{redirect|Unbeliever|the fictional character|The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant, the Unbeliever}}
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-{{Christianity}}
-{{Islam}}
-'''Infidel''' (literally "one without faith") is a term used in certain [[religion]]s, especially [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], for one who has no religious beliefs, or who doubts or rejects the central tenets of the particular religion.<ref>"Infidel", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company. "An unbeliever with respect to a particular religion, especially Christianity or Islam".</ref><ref>"Infidel", Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, 2006.</ref><ref name="Infidel-Oxford">{{cite web|url =http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O999-infidel.html| title = "infidel." ''The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. 2009.''|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]|accessdate = 2010-06-20}}</ref>
-''Infidel'' is an [[ecclesiastical]] term in [[Christianity]] around which the Church developed a body of theology that deals with the concept of infidelity, which makes a clear differentiation between those who were [[baptized]] and followed the teachings of the Church versus those who are outside the [[faith]].<ref name="IESS">{{cite web|url =http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045301127.html| title = "Infidels." ''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008''|publisher = [[MacMillan Library Reference]]|accessdate = 2010-06-20}}</ref> The term ''infidel'' was used by Christians to describe those perceived as the enemies of Christianity. When applied to non-monotheists, the usage of the word is similar to the appellations ''[[heathen]]'' or ''[[pagan]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tibi|first=Bassam|title=Political Islam, World Politics and Europe|year=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0415437806|pages=47}}</ref> As such, the term ''infidel'' has often been applied to [[atheists]], whose disbelief is viewed negatively in both Christianity and Islam.<ref name="Atheist">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=tvUlts3vJ9kC&pg=PA5&dq=infidel+atheist&hl=en&ei=Ba7DTaqdJ-nw0gGCp-z8Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=infidel%20atheist&f=false|title =The Works of Thomas Jackson, Volume IV|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]|quote=Atheism and irreligion are diseases so much more dangerous than infidelity or idolatry, as infidelity than heresy. Every heretic is in part an infidel, but every infidel is not in whole or part an heretic; every atheist is an infidel, so is not every infidel an atheist.|accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref><ref name="Kaafir">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ChsfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA209&dq=infidel+kafir+atheist&hl=en&ei=M7LDTaPjD_Pq0QHF36y1CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=infidel%20kafir%20atheist&f=false|title =The Bengal Annual|publisher = Samuel Smith and Co.|quote=Kafir means an infidel, but more properly an atheist.|accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref><ref name="Atheism">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=cymM4xEM76wC&pg=PA462&dq=atheism+catholic+church&hl=en&ei=ylTCTbejJoqatwe3xojTBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|title =Catechism of the Catholic Church|publisher = [[Burns & Oates]]|quote=2123 'Many... of our contemporaries either do not at all perceive, or explicitly reject, this intimate and vital bond of man to God. Atheism must therefore be regarded as one of the most serious problems of our time.' 2125 Since it rejects or deniest the existence of God, atheism is a sin against the virtue of religion.|accessdate=2011-04-08}}</ref>
-After the ancient world the concept of otherness, an exclusionary notion of the outside by societies with more or less coherent cultural boundaries, became associated with the development of the monotheistic and prophetic religions of [[Judaism]], Christianity and Islam. The conception of infidelity as a theological condition is a result of their strict conformity to [[monotheism]], as well as their rejection and condemnation of pagan rites.<ref name ="IESS"/>
-==Etymology==
-The origins of the word Infidel date to the late 15th century, deriving from the [[French language|French]] ''infidèle'' or [[Latin]] ''īnfidēlis'', from ''in-'' "not" + ''fidēlis'' "faithful" (from ''fidēs'' "faith", related to ''fīdere'' 'to trust'). The word originally denoted a person of a religion other than one's own, specifically a Christian to a Muslim, a Muslim to a Christian, or a [[Gentile]] to a Jew.<ref name ="Infidel-Oxford"/> Later meanings in the 15th century include "unbelieving", "a non-Christian" and "one who does not believe in religion" (1527).
-===Christian===
-Christians have historically referred to people outside their religious group as infidels, somebody who has actively rejected the Christian religion. It only became a well established notion in English sometime in the early sixteenth century, when Jews or "[[Mohammedan]]s", were described as active opponents to Christianity, and as such infidel was seen as term of contempt. In [[Catholic]] [[doctrine]], an infidel is one who does not believe in the doctrine at all and is thus distinct from a [[heresy|heretic]], who is one seen as having fallen astray from true doctrine, i.e. by denying the [[divinity of Jesus]]. Similarly, the ecclesiastical term was also used by the [[Methodist Church]],<ref name="Oxford University">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kxEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305&dq=A+Dialogue+between+a+Believer+and+an+Infidel&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Dialogue%20between%20a%20Believer%20and%20an%20Infidel&f=false| title = The Wesleyan-Methodist magazine: A Dialogue between a Believer and an Infidel|publisher = [[Oxford University]]|accessdate = 2007-03-25}}</ref><ref name="Methodist Review">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=gslWAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA972&dq=infidel+methodist&cd=1#v=onepage&q=infidel%20methodist&f=false| title = The Methodist review, Volume 89|quote=Is it conceivable that a Spirit which is invisible, and imponderable, and impalpable, and yet which is the seat of physical and moral powers, really occupies the universe? The infidel scoffs at the idea. We observe, however, that this same infidel implicitly believes in the existence of an all-pervading luminiferous ether, which is invisible, and imponderable, and impalpable, and yet is said to be more compact and more elastic than any material substance we can see and handle. |publisher = Phillips & Hunt|accessdate = 2007-03-25}}</ref> in reference to those "without faith".<ref name="William Lister">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wQcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72&dq=meaning+of+infidel+methodist&lr=&cd=23#v=onepage&q&f=false| title = The Primitive Methodist magazine|quote=It is sometimes translated infidels, because an infidel is without faith; but is also properly rendered unbelievers in the strict Gospel sense of the word.|publisher = William Lister|accessdate = 2007-03-25}}</ref>
-In later usage the term's definition was widened to include other forms of non-belief as well, such as:
-*[[Deist]] – believes in a god which fulfills the definition of a "prime mover" but does not act beyond this.
-*[[Atheist]] – does not believe that gods exist.
-*[[Sceptic]] – believes claims only when they believe there is sufficient evidence for the proposition.
-*[[Agnostic]] – does not claim to know whether or not gods exist or does not care either way.
-Today, the usage of the term infidel has declined;<ref name="Wheatcroft">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=SD_Cyz-XW3sC&pg=PA197&dq=infidel+usage&hl=en&ei=ULjDTd3GOMLi0QGh4dSJCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=infidel%20usage&f=false| title = Infidels|publisher = [[Random House]]|quote=Likewise, "infidel," which had still been in use in the early nineteenth century, fell out of favor with hymn writers.|accessdate = 2007-03-25}}</ref> the current preference is for the terms ''non-Christians'' and ''non-believers'' (persons without religious affiliations or beliefs), reflecting the commitment of mainstream [[Christian denominations]] to engage in dialog with persons of other faiths.<ref name="OSVCE">Russell B. Shaw, Peter M. J. Stravinskas, ''Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia'', [[Our Sunday Visitor Publishing]], 1998, ISBN 0-87973-669-0 p. 535.</ref> Nevertheless, some apologists have argued for the usage of the term, stating that it does not come from a disrespectful perspective, but is similar to using the term ''[[orthodoxy|orthodox]]'' for devout believers.<ref name="Orthodox">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=8TYrAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA188&dq=infidel+usage&hl=en&ei=ULjDTd3GOMLi0QGh4dSJCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=infidel%20usage&f=false| title = Infidel Testimony|publisher = J.E. Dixon|quote=When we use the word ''infidel'', we intend nothing disrespectful, any more than we do when we use the word ''orthodox''.|accessdate = 2007-03-25}}</ref>
-Moreover, some translations of the [[Bible]], such as the [[Authorized Version]], which is still in vogue today, employ the word infidel, while others supplant the term with nonbeliever; the term is found in two places:
-{{quotation|And what concord hath [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] with [[Belial]]? Or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel?  —[[2 Corinthians]] 6:15 KJV}}
-{{quotation|But if any provide not for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he hath denied the [[Faith in Christianity|faith]], and is worse than an infidel. —[[1 Timothy]] 5:8 KJV}}
-===Islamic===
-Infidel is an English language word commonly used to translate the equivalent [[Arabic]] language word for non-Muslims; ''[[kafir]]'' (sometimes "kaafir", "kufr" or "kuffar"), and the equivalent [[Turkish Language|Turkish]] [[loanword]] [[giaour|gâvur]], literally the one who "covers" and "conceals", is usually translated as "disbeliever"; i.e. in English translations of the Quranic verse, 109:1,<ref>{{Cite web| title= 'kafir' - english translations of the term in the Quran |url=http://www.islamawakened.com/quran/109/1/default.htm}}</ref><ref>"Kaffir", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. "''Islam'' An infidel."</ref><ref>"Kaffir" - Mid-16th century. < Arabic kāfir "unbeliever, infidel", Encarta World English Dictionary [North American Edition], Microsoft Corporation, 2007.</ref> Other terms sometimes synonymously used in Islamic literature for infidel are [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]], mushirk, and mushrikun.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/541133/shirk Encyclopedia Britannica]</ref><ref>[http://infad.usim.edu.my/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=8105 Islamic Science University of Malaysia, Dr. Abdullah al-Faqih, The meaning of "Kufr" and "Shirk"]</ref>
-In earliest recited verses of Qur'an, such as Al-Kafirun, the term kafir simply divided Meccan community into believers and unbelievers. In later recited verses, particularly those recited after the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 AD, the concept of infidel - ''kafir'' - was expanded upon, with Jews and Christians included.<ref name="Campo, Juan Eduardo 2009 page 421">Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing, New York, ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1, see page 421.</ref> The expanded term ''kafir'' refers to anyone who satisfies one or more of the following - practices idolatry of any form, does not accept absolute oneness of God, denies Muhammed as prophet, ignores God's [[ayah]] (evidence or signs), or rejects belief in resurrection and final judgment. Jews were condemned as infidels for their disbelief in God's ''ayah'', Christians were condemned as infidels for their belief in [[Trinity]], which Qur'an declared as a form of idolatry.<ref name="Campo, Juan Eduardo 2009 page 421"/><ref>Lewis, Bernard. The political language of Islam. University of Chicago Press, 1991.</ref><ref>Schimmel, Annemarie, and Abdoldjavad Falaturi. We Believe in One God: The Experience of God in Christianity and Islam. Seabury Press, 1979.</ref><ref name="Waldman, Marilyn Robinson 1968">Waldman, Marilyn Robinson. "The Development of the Concept of Kufr in the Qur'ān." Journal of the American Oriental society 88.3 (1968): 442-455.</ref> Certain sects of Islam, such as [[Wahhabi movement|Wahhabism]], include as kafir those Muslims who undertake Sufi shrine pilgrimage and follow Shia teachings about [[Imam]]s.<ref>Williams, Brian Glyn. "Jihad and ethnicity in post‐communist Eurasia. on the trail of transnational islamic holy warriors in Kashmir, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Chechnya and Kosovo." The Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2.3-4 (2003): 3-24.</ref><ref>UNGUREANU, Daniel. "Wahhabism, Salafism and the Expansion of Islamic Fundamentalist Ideology." Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric. 2011.</ref><ref>Marshall, Paul A., ed. Radical Islam's Rules: The Worldwide Spread of Extreme Shariʻa Law. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.</ref>
-The usage of ''kafir'', and related words with root k-f-r for infidel and unbelievers is very common in Qur'an and Hadith.<ref name="Waldman, Marilyn Robinson 1968"/> Under Islam, an infidel (kafir) is considered unclean and ritually impure (''najasat'').<ref name="J. Brill 1936, page 619">E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 4, ISBN 9789004097902, see page 619</ref> Many scholars claim Islam's original sources (Qur'an and Hadith) and derived sources (Ijma, Qiyas and Qitabs) speak of violence against infidel unbelievers living in [[Divisions of the world in Islam|''Dar al-Harb'']] - countries where Islamic law is not in force, as a matter of religious duty of the Muslim community (''fard ala'l kifāya'').<ref name="J. Brill 1936, page 619"/> Other scholars disagree.<ref>Manisuli Ssenyonjo, Jihad Re-Examined: Islamic Law and International Law, 10 Santa Clara J. Int'l L. 1 (2012).</ref><ref>Khadduri, Majid, ed. The Islamic law of nations: Shaybani's Siyar. JHU Press, 2001.</ref> Yet other scholars refer to the historical sequence of the verses, suggesting verses from early Meccan period recommend waiting and living apart from unbelievers. Later recited verses, such as Surah 2:191 recommend violence against unbelievers.<ref name="Campo, Juan Eduardo 2009 page 421"/><ref name="J. Brill 1936, page 619"/>
-{{quote|And kill them wherever you find them, and drive them out from whence they drove you out, and persecution is severer than slaughter, and do not fight with them at the Sacred Mosque until they fight with you in it, but if they do fight you, then slay them; such is the recompense of the unbelievers.|[[Qur'an]]|{{quran-usc|2|191}}||}}
-The [[sunnah]] in various [[hadith]]s, which record the teachings and actions of Muhammad, similarly recommend violence against kafir (disbelievers). For example, three different hadiths record the following action against infidels by the Prophet and his companions:
-{{quote|Narrated 'Abdullah: The Prophet recited Surat-an-Najm and then prostrated himself, and all who were with him prostrated too. But an old man took a handful of dust and touched his forehead with it saying, "This is sufficient for me." Later on I saw him being killed as an infidel.|{{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|bukhari|5|59|311}}||}}
-{{quote|When the Messenger of Allah appointed anyone as leader of an army or detachment he would especially exhort him to fear Allah and to be good to the Muslims who were with him. He would say: Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah. Make a holy war, do not embezzle the spoils [of war, booty<ref>this term has been variously translated; embezzlement refers to [http://www.alim.org/library/quran/ayah/compare/8/41/rules-about-the-distribution-of-the-spoils-of-war Surah 8:41] of Qur'an, which requires that the Islamic generals hand over 20% of the booty collected during their wars on disbelievers, to Allah and his Prophet (state), and keep 80% for themselves and their army.</ref>]; do not break your pledge; and do not mutilate the dead bodies; do not kill the children. When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, invite them to three courses of action. If they respond to any one of these, you also accept it and withhold yourself from doing them any harm. Invite them to accept Islam; if they respond to you, accept it from them and desist from fighting against them. Then invite them to migrate from their lands to the land of Muhairs and inform them that, if they do so, they shall have all the privileges and obligations of the Muhajirs. If they refuse to migrate, tell them that they will have the status of Bedouin Muslims and will be subjected to the Commands of Allah like other Muslims, but they will not get any share from the spoils of war or Fai' except when they actually fight with the Muslims against other disbelievers. If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya. If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them.|{{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|19|4294}}||}}
-The term infidel, ''kafir'' in Islam, is broad. One group is the so-called ''murtadd'', who are variously translated as [[apostasy|apostate]] or [[apostasy in islam|renegades]]. For renegades, Islamic law prescribes death, with the opportunity first of obeying the demand to return to Islam. The other group, the so-called ''kafirun asliyun'', or unbelievers proper, have only to expect death or slavery.<ref name="J. Brill 1936, page 619"/><ref>[http://abdurrahman.org/tawheed/tawheed_lessons_wasabi/Class_21_-_September_3_05.pdf A Summary of Al-Kufr, Shaykh Ahmed al-Wasaabee (2005)]</ref>
-Some scholars claim Islam considers Jews and Christians as fellow believers. They are called "[[People of the Book]] (''Ahl al-kitab'')".<ref name= "Intro">"Infidel" in ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'', p. 630</ref><ref name=kafir>"Kafir" in ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'' p. 702</ref><ref name="Ahl-e Kitab">[http://sistani.org/local.php?modules=nav&nid=5&cid=409 Questions about Ahl-e Kitab] by the [[Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani]]</ref> Other Islamic scholars, however, consider Jews and Christians as kafir. [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], for example, claims, "it is well known among the Muslims, and they are unanimously agreed that the Christians are kaafirs, and even that those who do not regard them as kaafirs are also kaafirs."<ref>[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/12713 Majmoo’ al-Fataawa, 5/233, 234]</ref><ref>[Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. "Manning the barricades: Islam according to Saudi Arabia's school texts." The Middle East Journal (2003): 230-247.]</ref> Similarly, [[Abdul Aziz bin Abdullah bin Baz]] suggests, "The Jews and Christians are both kafirs and mushrikeen. They are kafirs because they deny the truth and reject it. And they are mushrikeen because they worship someone other than Allah."<ref>[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/67626 Majmoo’ Fataawa al-Shaykh Ibn Baaz, 4/274]</ref><ref>[Kabha, Mustafa, and Haggai Erlich. "Al-Ahbash and Wahhabiyya: Interpretations of Islam." International Journal of Middle East Studies (2006): 519-538.]</ref> Sheikh Ahmad Kutty, and other scholars, consider annual worships by Christians such as Christmas as a celebration of the belief in the "Son of God" which in Islam is blasphemy and kafir.<ref>[http://infad.usim.edu.my/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=7000 Sheikh Ahmad Kutty (2004), Islamic Institute of Toronto, Can Muslims Celebrate Christmas?]</ref><ref>[Abdul-Rahman, Muhamm. Islam: questions and answers: alliance and amity, disavowal and enmity. MSA Publication Limited, 2003; see pages 152-153]</ref><ref>Masud, Muhammad Khalid. "Islamic law and Muslim minorities." ISIM Newsletter 11 (2002): 17.</ref>
-Kafir, like infidel, has also come to be regarded as offensive.<ref name = "Brill">Bjorkman, W. "Kafir". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Brill, Brill Online.</ref>
-Some Muslim scholars discourage its use due to the Quran's command to speak kindly.<ref name="Islamonline.net">{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1123996016352&pagename=IslamOnline-English-AAbout_Islam/AskAboutIslamE/AskAboutIslamE|title=''General Fatwa Session''|accessdate=2007-02-23|publisher=[[Islamonline.net]]|year=2005|author=Sheikh Muhammad Al-Mukhtar Al-Shinqiti|work=Living Shariah > Live Fatwa}} The scholar quotes Al-Baqarah 2: 83.</ref>{{dead link|date=July 2013}}{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} Under [[Sharia|Islamic law]] it is even a punishable offense to use this term against a Jew or a Christian<ref name = "Brill"/>{{Failed verification|date=July 2013}}, still there are some contemporary Muslim extremists, who have applied the term to all non-Muslims.<ref name= "Intro"/>{{Failed verification|date=July 2013}}
-===Jewish===
-Judaism has a notion of [[pagan]] [[gentile]]s who are called ''acum'' (an acronym of Ovdei Cohavim u-Mazzaloth or, literally, those who are "star-and-constellation worshippers") or idolaters. The [[Hebrew]] term, ''[[kofer]]'', cognate with the Arabic ''kafir'', is reserved for [[Apostasy|apostate]] Jews.<ref name = "IESS"/>
-==Infidels under Canon Law==
-===Right to rule===
-In ''Quid super his'', [[Innocent IV]], asked the question "[I]s it licit to invade a land that infidels possess or which belongs to them?" and held that while Infidels had a right to ''dominium'' (right to rule themselves and choose their own governments), however the [[pope]], as the [[Vicar]] of [[Christ]], ''de jure'' possessed the care of their [[soul]]s and had the right to politically intervene in their affairs if their ruler violated or allowed his subjects to violate a Christian and Euro-centric normative conception of [[Natural law#Christian natural law|Natural law]], such as sexual perversion or idolatry.<ref name=williams-48>Williams, p.48</ref> He also held that he had an obligation to send [[missionaries]] to infidel lands, and that if they were prevented from entering or preaching, then the pope was justified in dispatching Christian forces accompanied with missionaries to invade those lands, as Innocent stated simply "If the infidels do not obey, they ought to be compelled by the secular arm and war may be declared upon them by the pope, and nobody else."<ref>Williams, p.14</ref> This was however not a reciprocal right and non-Christian missionaries such as those of Muslims could not be allowed to preach in Europe "because they are in error and we are on a righteous path."<ref name=williams-48/>
-A long line of Papal hierocratic canonists, most notably those who adhered to Alanus Anglicus's influential arguments of the Crusading-era, denied Infidel dominium, and asserted [[Rome]]'s universal jurisdictional authority over the earth, and the right to authorize pagan conquests solely on the basis of non-belief because of their rejection of the Christian god.<ref>Williams, pp. 41, 61-64</ref> In the extreme hierocractic canonical discourse of the mid-twelfth century such as that espoused by Bernard of Clairvaux, the mystic leader of the Cisertcians, legitimized [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] colonial expansion and practice of forceful [[Christianisation]] in the [[Slavic Europe|Slavic territories]] as a [[religious war|holy war]] against the [[Wends]], arguing that infidels should be killed wherever they posed a menace to Christians.<ref name=williams-61/> When [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick the II]] unilaterally arrogated papal authority, he took on the mantle to "destroy convert, and subjugate all barbarian nations." A power in papal doctrine reserved for the pope. Hostiensis, a student of Innocent, in accord with Alanus, also asserted "... by law infidels should be subject to the faithful." and the heretical quasi-[[Donatist]] [[John Wyclif]], regarded as the forefather of [[English Reformation]], also held that valid ''dominium'' rested on a state of [[Divine grace|grace]].<ref name=williams-61>Williams, pp. 61–64</ref>
-The [[Teutonic Knights]] were one of the by-products of this papal hierocratic and German discourse. After the [[Crusades]] in the [[Levant]], they moved to crusading activities in the infidel [[Baltics]].<ref name=williams-64>Williams, pp. 64–67</ref> Their crusades against the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanians]] and [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Poles]] however precipitated the Lithuanian Controversy, and the [[Council of Constance]], following the condemnation of Wyclif, found Hostiensis's views no longer acceptable and ruled against the knights. Future Church doctrine was then firmly aligned with Innocents IV's position.<ref name=williams-64/>
-The development of counter arguments later on the validity of Papal authority, the rights of infidels and the primacy of [[natural law]], led to various treatises such as those by [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Locke]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]], which in turn led to the transformation of [[international law]]'s treatment of the relationship between Christian and non-Christian societies and the development of [[human rights]].
-====Colonization of the Americas====
-During the [[Age of discovery]], the [[Papal Bull]]s such as ''[[Romanus Pontifex]]'' and more importantly ''[[inter caetera]]'' (1493), implicitly removed ''dominium'' from infidels and granted them to the [[Spanish Empire]] and [[Portugal]] with the charter of guaranteeing the safety of missionaries.<ref name="Chris">Christopher 31-40</ref> Subsequent English and French rejections of the bull refuted the Popes authority to exclude other Christian princes. As independent authorities such as the Head of the [[Church of England]], they drew up [[charter]]s for their own [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[Mission (Christian)|mission]]s based on the temporal right for care of infidel souls in language echoing the inter caetera.<ref name="Chris">Christopher 31-40</ref> The charters and papal bulls would form the legal basis of future negotiations and consideration of claims as [[title deed]]s in the emerging [[Law of nations]] in the [[European colonization of the Americas]].<ref name="Chris">Christopher 31-40</ref>
-The rights bestowed by ''Romanus Pontifex'' and ''inter caetera'' have never fallen from use, serving as the basis for legal arguments over the centuries. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in the 1823 case ''[[Johnson v. M'Intosh]] ''that as a result of European discovery and assumption of ultimate dominion, [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] had only a right to occupancy of native lands, not the right of title. This decision was upheld in the 1831 case ''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'', giving Georgia authority to extend state laws over [[Cherokee]]s within the state, and famously describing Native American tribes as "domestic dependent nations." This decision was modified in ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', which stated that the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]], and not individual [[U.S. state|states]], had authority in Indian affairs, but it maintained the loss of right to title upon discovery by Europeans.
-Native American groups including the [[Taíno people|Taíno]] and [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]] have called on the [[Holy See|Vatican]] to revoke the bulls of 1452, 1453, and 1493.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}
-===Marriage===
-According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], the Church views [[Catholic marriage|Marriage]] as forbidden and null when conducted between the faithful (Christians) and infidels, unless a [[Dispensation (Catholic Church)|dispensation]] has been granted.<ref name="catenc">1910 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08002b.htm]</ref> This is because marriage is a [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacrament of the Catholic Church]], which infidels are deemed incapable of receiving.<ref name="catenc"/>
-==As a philosophical tradition==
-Some [[Philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Thomas Paine]], [[David Hume]], [[George Holyoake]], [[Charles Bradlaugh]], [[Voltaire]] and [[Rousseau]] earned the label of infidel or [[Freethought|freethinkers]], both personally and for their respective traditions of thought because of their attacks on religion and opposition to the Church. They established and participated in a distinctly labeled, infidel movement or tradition of thought, that sought to reform their societies which were steeped in Christian thought, practice, laws and culture. The Infidel tradition was distinct from parallel anti-Christian, sceptic or deist movements, in that it was anti-theistic and also synonymous with atheism. These traditions also sought to set up various independent model communities, as well as societies, whose traditions then gave rise to various other socio-political movements such as [[secularism]] in 1851, as well as developing close philosophical ties to some contemporary political movements such as [[socialism]] and the [[French Revolution]].<ref name ="Royle">Royle, Edwards, "Victorian Infidels: The Origins of the British Secularist Movement 1791-1866", Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-0557-4</ref>
-Towards the early twentieth century, these movements sought to move away from the tag "infidel" because of its associate negative connotation in Christian thought, and is attributed to George Holyoake's coining the term 'secularism' in an attempt to bridge the gap with other theist and Christian liberal reform movements.<ref name = "Royle"/>
-In 1793, Immanuel Kant's ''[[Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason]]'', reflected the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] periods' philosophical development, one which differentiated between the moral and rational and substituted rational/irrational for the original true believer/infidel distinction.<ref name ="IESS"/>
-==Implications upon medieval civil law==
-Laws passed by the Catholic Church governed not just the laws between Christians and Infidels in matters of religious affairs, but also civil affairs. They were prohibited from participating or aiding in infidel religious rites, such as [[circumcision]]s or wearing images of non-Christian religious significance.<ref name="catenc"/>
-In the [[Early Middle Ages]], based on the idea of the superiority of Christians to infidels, regulations came into place such as those forbidding Jews from possessing Christian [[slave]]s; the laws of the [[decretal]]s further forbade Christians from entering the service of Jews, for Christian women to act as their nurses or midwives; forbidding Christians from employing Jewish physicians when ill; restricting Jews to definite quarters of the towns into which they were admitted and to wear a dress by which they might be recognized.<ref name="catenc"/>
-Later during the Victorian era, testimony of either self declared, or those accused of being Infidels or Atheists, was not accepted in a [[court]] of law because it was felt that they had no moral imperative to not lie under [[oath]] because they did not believe in God, or [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]].<ref name = "Royle"/>
-These rules have now given way to modern [[legislation]] and Catholics, in civil life, are no longer governed by ecclesiastical law.<ref name="catenc"/>
-==See also==
-*[[Agnosticism]]
-*[[Antitheism]]
-*[[Apostasy]]
-*[[Atheism]]
-*[[Blasphemy]]
-*[[Deism]]
-*[[Freethought]]
-*[[Heathen]]
-*[[Pagan]]
-==Notes==
-{{Reflist|2}}
-==References==
-* Williams, Robert A. ''The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest'', 1990, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-508002-5
-* Tomlins, Christopher L.; Mann, Bruce H. ''The Many Legalities of Early America'', 2001, [[UNC Press]], ISBN 0-8078-4964-2
-* Weckman, George. ''The Language of the Study of Religion: A Handbook'', 2001, [[Xlibris Corporation]] ISBN 0-7388-5105-1
-* ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms'', [[Merriam-Webster Inc.]], 1984, ISBN 0-87779-341-7
-* Espin, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B. ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'', [[Liturgical Press]], 2007, ISBN 0-8146-5856-3
-;Attribution
-*{{Catholic|wstitle=Infidels}}
-==External links==
-{{Wiktionary|infidel}}
-*[http://www.rosarychurch.net/answers/ap091994b.html Prayer of St. Francis Xavier for the Conversion of the Infidels:] a prayer written by [[Francis Xavier]], [[Doctor of the Church]]
-*[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/infidel Definition of "infidel"] by the [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary
-*[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/unbeliever Definition of "unbeliever"] by the [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary
-*[http://books.google.com/books?id=SD_Cyz-XW3sC&printsec=frontcover Infidels: a history of the conflict between Christendom and Islam by Andrew Wheatcroft Random house, 2005]
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