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Coast Miwok

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For the language, see Coast Miwok language.

Coast Miwok People
Modern reconstructions of Coast Miwok shelters at Kule Loklo
Total population
1770: 2,000
1850: 250
1880: 60
2000: 167[1]
Regions with significant populations
California:

Marin County

Sonoma County
Languages
Utian:
Coast Miwok
Religion
Shamanism: Kuksu:
Miwok mythology
Related ethnic groups
Miwok

Plains & Sierra Miwok
Lake Miwok

Bay Miwok

The Coast Miwok are an Indigenous people of California that were the second-largest tribe of the Miwok people. Coast Miwok inhabited the general area of present-day Marin County and southern Sonoma County in Northern California, from the Golden Gate north to Duncans Point and eastward to Sonoma Creek. Coast Miwok included the Bodega Bay Miwok, or Olamentko (Olamentke), from authenticated Miwok villages around Bodega Bay, the Marin Miwok, or Hookooeko (Huukuiko), and Southern Sonoma Miwok, or Lekahtewutko (Lekatuit). While they did not have an overarching name for themselves, the Coast Miwok word for people, Micha-ko, was suggested by A. L. Kroeber as a possible endonym,[2] keeping with a common practice among tribal groups and the ethnographers studying them in the early 20th century and with the term Miwok itself, which is the Central Sierra Miwok word for 'people'.

Map of Coast Miwok tribelets

Culture

[edit]
Basket made by Miwok at the Oakland Museum of California
Abalone shells gathered from the coast were used to make jewelry.

The Coast Miwok spoke their own Coast Miwok language in the Utian linguistic group. They lived by hunting and gathering, and lived in small bands without centralized political authority. In the springtime they would head to the coasts to hunt salmon and other seafood, including seaweed.[3] Otherwise their staple foods were primarily acorns—particularly from black and tan oak–nuts and wild game, such as deer and cottontail rabbits and black-tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus, a coastal subspecies of the California mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus.[4] When hunting deer, Miwok hunters traditionally used Brewer's angelica, Angelica breweri to eliminate their own scent.[5] Miwok did not typically hunt bears.[6] Yerba buena tea leaves were used medicinally.[7]

Tattooing was a traditional practice among Coast Miwok, and they burned poison oak for a pigment.[8] Their traditional houses, called "kotcha", were constructed with slabs of tule grass or redwood bark in a cone-shaped form.[9]

Miwok people are skilled at basketry. A recreated Coast Miwok village called Kule Loklo is located at the Point Reyes National Seashore.[citation needed]

Cultural subdivisions

[edit]

In C. Hart Merriam's discussions with Coast Miwok peoples, he identified three cultural tribes:

  • Olamentko, pronounced O-la-MENT-ko (around Bodega Bay) and now called Olamentke
  • Lekahtewutko, pronounced Lek-KAH-te-WUT-ko (in south-central Sonoma County) and now called Lekatuit
  • Hookooeko, pronounced HOO-koo-EE-ko (in Marin County and southern Sonoma County), and now called Huukuiko, whom the Olamentko called Olumko, or "South People."[10][11]

These tribes did not have a political structure and so are not "tribes" in that sense.[12] Rather, chiefs or headmen (oi-bu in Olamentko[13] and hoipu in Hookooeko) were empowered at the tribelet level. The Coast Miwok did not have a single name for all three tribes, describing themselves instead by tribe, tribelet, or village, depending on the context. Using Merriam's divisions, the tribelets as shown on the map to the right – itself derived from Milliken[12] – can be classified as:

  • Olamentko
    • Bodega Bay
  • Lekahtewutko
    • Bloomfield
  • Hookooeko
    • Alaguali
    • Chocuyen
    • Gualen
    • Huimen
    • Olema
    • Olompali
    • Omomi
    • Petaluma (though Merriam puts the southernmost boundary of the Lekahtewutko a mile north of Petaluma and its associated villages, which is in the middle of Milliken's boundaries for this tribelet.)
    • Tamal Aguasto (though the Tamal people lived in the Miller Creek watershed to the north in what is now Terra Linda and the Aguasto to the south, there was enough intermarriage in the early 19th century that Milliken, the source of this article's map, lumps them into a single tribelet.[12])
    • North Tomales Bay
    • South Tomales Bay

Language

[edit]

The Coast Miwok language is still spoken, but the Bodega dialect, spoken by the Olamentko group, is documented in Callaghan (1970). From speaking with Coast Miwok people in the early 1900s, Merriam believed that the Lekahtewutko and Hookooeko dialects were substantially the same.[10]

Ethnobotany

[edit]

Ethnobotany of the Coast Miwok. They had extensive knowledge and relationships with local flora. Presumably every plant had a name and purpose. Notable engagement with plants may be viewed from four perspectives: medicinal uses, food sustenance, technology and spiritual significance.

Medicinal uses:

The California Floristic province provides an abundant natural pharmacy for healing and known developed treatments for maladies include but are not limited to: analgesic (pain relief), hematology (blood purifier), snakebite, respiratory, gastrointestinal and dermatological (skin) applications.

  • Yarrow Achillea sp.(respiratory), Dogwood Cornus sericea (pain relief) and Willow Salix spp. (pain relief), California Coffeeberry Frangula californica (gastrointestinal), Death Camas Toxciscordion fremontii (dermatological), Blue Elderberry Sambucus cerulea (respiratory, dermatology, gastrointestinal and hematology), California Bay Umbellularia californica, (gastrointestinal), Yerba Buena Clinopodium douglasii (hematology), Pacific Madrone Arbutus menziesii (dermatology, gastrointestinal), Yerba Santa Eridictyon californicum (respiratory, dermatological, hematology)[14]

Food Sustenance

[edit]

Comparable to the modern concepts of farming and restoration, Coast Miwok practiced their own methods. Coast Miwok were active stewards to encourage and sustain ecological life-giving sources, otherwise known as resources. For example cultivation efforts involved seed collection, storing seeds, propagation, and transplantation. Other methods include prescribed burns and generational management[15][page needed] of oak tree groves or stands.[16]

Technology

Building shelter, assisting travel and tools were specialized by the flora available. Coast Miwok utilized various species for their intrinsic properties, fire and rot resistance, fiber strength, flexibility and color ect.

  • Shelter: Sequoia sempervirens, Redwood tree bark used as building materials for constructing shelter. Ferns for cross-thatching.
  • Travel: Sedges Schoenoplectus acutus and S. californicus were used to make Tule Reed canoes
  • Tools:
    • Bow making for hunting or strong wood needs: Incense cedar Calocedrus decurrens, Pacific Yew Taxus brevifolia
    • Plant fibers: Milkweed Asclepias spp., California Hemp Hoita macrostachya, Ground Iris Iris macrosiphon, Dogbane Apocynum spp., Ninebark Physocarpus capitatus[19]
    • Basket weaving: Sedges Carex spp. Cyperus spp. Eleocharis spp., Willows Salix spp., Ferns Adiantum spp. Maidenhair and Five Finger, used for contrasting black stems.
    • Fishing technique stunning with poison, California Buckeye Aesculus californica

Spiritual Significance

Plants were deeply valued and an integral part of spiritual or ceremonial practices. Specific plants were used for certain purposes: success for hunting, rites of passage, aiding fertility, protection and health, as well as mourning.

  • California Lilac Ceanothus spp. (stimulant)
  • Sacred Datura Datura wrightii sp. (hallucinogen) ritual uses age rite of passage[22]
  • Cudweed or Ladies’ Tobacco Pseudognaphalium californicum, Rabbit tobacco spp. (stimulant)
  • Holy Herb California Yerba Santa Eriodictyon californicum (smudging)
  • California Mugwort Artemisia douglasiana (headache relief and mourning)[14]
  • Coastal Sagebrush Artemisia californica (rite of passage and protection)[23]

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Miwok mythology

Coast Miwok people's world view included animism, and one form this took was the Kuksu religion that was evident in Central and Northern California. This included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty rites of passage, shamanic intervention with the spirit world and an all-male society that met in subterranean dance rooms.[24] Kuksu was shared with other indigenous ethnic groups of Central California, such as their neighbors the Pomo, also Maidu, Ohlone, Esselen, and northernmost Yokuts. However Kroeber observed less "specialized cosmogony" in the Miwok, which he termed one of the "southern Kuksu-dancing groups", in comparison to the Maidu and other northern California tribes.[25]

Coast Miwok mythology and narratives were similar to those of other natives of Central and Northern California. The Coast Miwok believed in animal and human spirits, and saw the animal spirits as their ancestors. Coyote was seen as their ancestor and creator god. In their stories, the Earth began with land formed out of the Pacific Ocean.[26]

Traditional narratives

[edit]
Main article: Coast Miwok traditional narratives

In their myths, legends, tales, and histories, the Coast Miwok participated in the general cultural pattern of Central California.[24]

Villages

[edit]

The authenticated Coast Miwok villages are:[27]

History

[edit]
Illustration from a 1590 book: Francis Drake's 1579 expedition reportedly had friendly relations with Californian natives.
Balthazar, Inhabitant of Northern California, painted by Mikhail Tikhanov 1818

Coastal populations like the Coast Miwok were likely some of the First People to establish on the North American continent. Evidence to suggest this migration path and timeline is supported by the theory of the Kelp Highway[4] and discovery of footprints in White Sands New Mexico[7] date of arrival as far back as 23-21,000 years ago. Before and after the glacial maximum the sea level and coast line drastically changed and archeological sites are likely underwater[5] as the sea level has risen over 400 ft since 18,000 years ago and the coast line reduced by over 30 miles in some areas.[6]

Documentation of Miwok peoples dates back as early as 1579 by a priest on a ship under the command of Sir Francis Drake. Other verification of occupancy exists from Spanish and Russian voyagers between 1595 and 1808.[28][29] Over 1,000 prehistoric charmstones and numerous arrowheads have been unearthed at Tolay Lake in Southern Sonoma County – some dating back 4,000 years. The lake was thought to be a sacred site and ceremonial gathering and healing place for the Miwok and others in the region.[30][31]

Coast Miwok would travel and camp on the coast and bays at peak fishing seasons.

After the Europeans arrived in California, the population declined from diseases introduced by the Europeans. Beginning in 1783, mission ecclesiastical records show that Coast Miwok individuals began to join Mission San Francisco de Asis, now known as Mission Dolores. They started joining that mission in large numbers in 1803, when the marriages of 49 couples from their Huimen and Guaulen local tribes (San Rafael and Bolinas Bay) appeared in the Mission San Francisco Book of Marriages.[32] Local tribes from farther and farther north along the shore of San Pablo Bay moved to Mission San Francisco through 1812. Then in 1814 the Spanish authorities began to split the northern groups—Alagualis, Chocoimes (alias Sonomas), Olompalis, and Petalumas—sending a portion of each group to Mission San Francisco and another portion to Mission San Jose in the southeast portion of the San Francisco Bay Area. By the end of 1817, 850 Coast Miwok had been converted.[33]

Mission San Rafael was founded by the Spanish Franciscans in Coast Miwok territory in the late fall of 1817. By that time the only Coast Miwok people still on their land were those on the Pacific Coast of the Marin Peninsula, from Point Reyes north to Bodega Bay.[34] The Spanish authorities brought most of the Coast Miwoks who had been at Missions San Francisco and San Jose back north to form a founding population for Mission San Rafael.[35][36] But some who had married Ohlone or Bay Miwok-speaking Mission Indians remained south of the Golden Gate. Over time in the 1820s Mission San Rafael became a mission for Coast Miwok and Pomo speakers. Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in 1823 in the Sonoma Valley (the easternmost traditional Coast Miwok region), came to be predominately a mission for Indians that spoke the Wappo or Patwin languages.[37]

At the end of the Mission period (1769–1834) the Coast Miwoks were freed from the control of the Franciscan missionaries. At the same time the Mission lands were secularized and ceded to Californios. Most Coast Miwok began to live in servitude on the ranchos for the new California land grant owners, such as those who went to work for General Mariano G. Vallejo at Rancho Petaluma Adobe. The ranch owners were dependent upon the labor pool of Indians with agricultural and ranching skills.[28][29] Other Miwok chose to live independently in bands like those at Rancho Olompali and Rancho Nicasio.

In 1837, a smallpox epidemic decimated all the native populations of the Sonoma region, and the Coast Miwok population continued to decline rapidly from other diseases brought in from the Spaniards as well as the Russians at Fort Ross.[29][38]

By the beginning of California statehood (1850), many Miwok of Marin and Sonoma Counties were making the best of a difficult situation by earning their livelihoods through farm labor or fishing within their traditional homelands. Others chose to work as seasonal or year-round laborers on the ranches that were rapidly passing from Mexican ownership into Anglo-American ownership.[29][39]

Olompali and Nicasio

[edit]

After Mission San Rafael closed during the 1834–1836 period, the Mexican government deeded most of the land to Californios, but allowed the Miwok ex-neophytes to own land at two locations within traditional Coast Miwok territory: Olompali and Nicasio.

The Coast Miwok leader Camilo Ynitia, secured a land grant of 2 sq. leagues known as Rancho Olompali, from Governor Micheltorena of Alta California in 1843, which included the prehistoric Miwok village of Olompali (his home village) and is north of present-day Novato.[40][41]

The village of Olompali dates back to 500, had been a main center in 1200, and might have been the largest Miwok village in Marin County.[42] Ynitia held onto the Rancho Olompoli land title for nine years, but in 1852 he sold most of the land to James Black of Marin.[42] He retained 1,480 acres (6.0 km2) called Apalacocha. His daughter eventually sold Apalacocha.

The other Miwok-owned rancho was at Rancho Nicasio northwest of San Rafael. Near the time of secularization (1835), the Church granted the "San Rafael Christian Indians" 20 leagues[clarification needed] (80,000 acres or 32,000 hectares) of Mission lands from present-day Nicasio to the Tomales Bay. About 500 Miwok people relocated to Rancho Nicasio. By 1850 they had one league of land left. This radical reduction of land was a result of illegal confiscation of land by Europeans under protest by native residents. In 1870, José Calistro, the last community leader at Nicasio, purchased the small surrounding parcel. Calistro died in 1875, and in 1876 the land was transferred by his will to his four children. In 1880 there were 36 Miwok people at Nicasio. The population was persuaded to leave in the 1880s when Marin County curtailed funds to all Miwok (except those at Marshall) who were not living at the Poor Farm, a place for indigent peoples.[43]

Some Coast Miwok persons were enslaved. In 1846, Joseph Warren Revere (career militant and grandson of Paul Revere) purchased Rancho San Geronimo. It was 8,701 acres (3,521 ha) of Coast Miwok land, first seized by Manuel Micheltorena in 1844 during the Mexican-American war.[44] Revere forced enslaved Coast Miwok people to operate the plantation,[45][46][better source needed] selling timber and crops.[44]

By the early 20th century, a few Miwok families pursued fishing for their livelihoods; one family continued commercial fishing into the 1970s, while another family maintained an oyster harvesting business. When this activity was neither in season nor profitable, Miwok people of this area sought agricultural employment, which required an itinerant lifestyle. The preferred locality for such work was within Marin and Sonoma counties.

Recognition

[edit]

The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, formerly the Federated Coast Miwok, gained federal recognition of their tribal status in December 2000. The new tribe consists of people of both Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo descent.

Population

[edit]

Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. (See Population of Native California.) Alfred L. Kroeber put the 1770 population of the Coast Miwok at 1,500.[47] Sherburne F. Cook raised this figure to 2,000.[33]

The population in 1848 was estimated as 300, and it had dropped to 60 in 1880.[48]

Notable people

[edit]
  • José Calistro was the last community leader at Nicasio.
  • Chief Marin was a Coast Miwok of the Huimen local tribe, baptized at around age 20 in 1801[49] at Mission San Francisco and noted as an alcalde at Mission San Rafael in the 1820s. He died on March 15, 1839.[43] Marin County and the Marin Islands are named in his honor.[50] He was the "great chief of the tribe Licatiut", according to General Vallejo's semi-historical report to the first California State Legislature (1850).[49] He was likely, then, of the Lekahtewutko from southern Sonoma County.
  • Quintin, was renowned as the sub-chief of Marin and skipper at Mission Dolores, according to General Vallejo. San Quentin Peninsula (1840) is reputed to be named after him. San Quentin State Prison was added much later.[50]
  • Julia F. Parker, notable basket weaver.
  • Ponponio (aka Pomponio) was baptized in 1803 at around age four[49] at Mission San Francisco. He was a leader of a band of Native American fugitives in California who called themselves Los Insurgentes. Evading authorities, he was eventually captured in Marin County, and executed in Monterey in 1824.
  • Greg Sarris is the current Tribal Chairman of the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, also a college professor and author.
  • William Smith was born a Bodega Bay Coast Miwok (Olamentko), was forced relocation to Lake County during the late 19th century, but returned to Bodega Bay where he and his relatives founded the commercial fishing industry in the area.
  • Tsupu, a Coast Miwok elder
  • Camilo Ynitia (1816–1856) was a Coast Miwok leader who became the owner of an 8,800 acres (36 km2) land grant secured for the Miwok, named Rancho Olompali, now the Olompali State Historic Park. Ynitia also forged a ranch labor-alliance with General Vallejo, and secured semblance of peace with the white settlers (about 1830s-1840s).[28][51]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ "2000 census" (PDF).
  2. ^ Kroeber 1925[page needed]
  3. ^ Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, p. 216
  4. ^ a b Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, pp. 247, 335
  5. ^ a b Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, p. 335
  6. ^ a b Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, p. 334
  7. ^ a b Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, pp. 219, 223
  8. ^ Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, p. 229
  9. ^ Lightfoot & Parrish 2009, p. 225
  10. ^ a b Merriam, C. Hart (1907). "Distribution and Classification of the Mewan Stock of California". American Anthropologist. 9 (2): 338–357. doi:10.1525/aa.1907.9.2.02a00080. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 659593.
  11. ^ Hoshino, Lina (August 16, 2022). "Another Perspective: Coast Miwok elder wants his Petaluma heritage to be respected". Petaluma Argus-Courier. Retrieved October 17, 2022.
  12. ^ a b c Milliken, Randall (2009). Ethnohistory and Ethnogeography of the Coast Miwok and Their Neighbors, 1783-1840 (PDF). Oakland, CA: National Park Service.
  13. ^ Von Wrangell, F. P.; Kostromitonov, P.; Heizer, R. F. (1974) [1839]. Ethnographic Observations on the Coast Miwok and Pomo (PDF). Translated by Stross, Fred. Berkeley: University of California. p. 15.
  14. ^ a b "BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database". naeb.brit.org. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  15. ^ Lightfoot & Parrish 2009.
  16. ^ "Our History". www.coastmiwokofmarin.org. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  17. ^ "Coast Miwok at Point Reyes". Point Reyes National Seashore. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  18. ^ "Local Indian Uses of Plants a Self-Guided Trail. Leona Canyon Regional Open Space Preserve" (PDF). 2020 – via Interpretive and Recreation Services Department.
  19. ^ a b Kennard, Charles (1999). "Plant Uses of the Coast Miwok" (PDF). Friends of Corte Madera Creek Watershed.
  20. ^ "Plant of the day: hayfield tarweed". Flowers Of Marin. August 27, 2012. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  21. ^ "Miwok History « Angel Island Conservancy". Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  22. ^ "California Indian History – California Native American Heritage Commission". nahc.ca.gov. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  23. ^ Arboretum Santa Cruz, Sara Reid, Van Wishingrad, and Stephen McCabe (2009). "Plant Uses: California Native American Uses of California Plants - Ethnobotany" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ a b Kroeber 1907
  25. ^ Kroeber 1925, p. 445: "A less specialized type of cosmogony is therefore indicated for the southern Kuksu-dancing groups. [1. If, as seems probable, the southerly Kuksu tribes (the Miwok, Costanoans, Esselen, and northernmost Yokuts) had no real society in connection with their Kuksu ceremonies, the distinctness of their mythology appears less surprising.]".
  26. ^ Clark 1910,[full citation needed] Gifford 1917.[full citation needed]
  27. ^ "Miwok Indian Tribe". Access Genealogy. Retrieved January 11, 2008.
  28. ^ a b c Cook 1976[page needed]
  29. ^ a b c d Silliman 2004[page needed]
  30. ^ "Tolay Lake Park: Natural and Cultural History". Archived from the original on April 3, 2008.
  31. ^ "Tolay Lake Regional Park". County of Sonoma Regional Parks Department. August 20, 2007. Archived from the original on February 3, 2008.
  32. ^ Milliken 1995, pp. 176–179
  33. ^ a b Cook 1976, p. 182
  34. ^ Goerke 2007, pp. 49, 70
  35. ^ Goerke 2007, pp. 71–77
  36. ^ Milliken 2008, p. 60
  37. ^ Milliken 2008, pp. 59–60, 64
  38. ^ Cook 1976, pp. 213–214
  39. ^ Goerke 2007, pp. 155–168
  40. ^ Goerke 2007[page needed]
  41. ^ Shumway 1988, p. 39
  42. ^ a b Reutinger 1997[page needed]
  43. ^ a b Goerke 2007[page needed]
  44. ^ a b Chemerka, WIlliam R. (June 12, 2013). General Joseph Warren Revere: The Gothic Saga of Paul Revere's Grandson. BearManor Media.
  45. ^ "Marin history: Next stop, Lagunitas station". Marin Independent Journal. November 27, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2022.
  46. ^ San Geronimo Valley Historical Society (May 1, 2020). "A brief history of potato farming in the #sangeronimovalley". Facebook.
  47. ^ Kroeber 1925, p. 883
  48. ^ Cook 1976, pp. 239, 351
  49. ^ a b c Goerke 2007[page needed]
  50. ^ a b Teather 1986[page needed]
  51. ^ Teather has full name and acreage [page needed]

References

[edit]
  • Cook, Sherburne (1976). The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03143-1.
  • Goerke, Betty (2007). Chief Marin, Leader, Rebel, and Legend: A History of Marin County's Namesake and his People. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books. ISBN 978-1-59714-053-9.
  • Kroeber, Alfred L. (1907). "The Religion of the Indians of California". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 4 (6) – via Sacred Texts Online. – see "Shamanism", "Public Ceremonies", "Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia", and "Mythology and Beliefs"
  • Lightfoot, Kent; Parrish, Otis (2009). California Indians and Their Environment: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25690-3.
  • Milliken, Randall (2008). Native Americans at Mission San Jose. Banning, CA: Malki-Ballena Press. ISBN 978-0-87919-147-4.
  • Milliken, Randall (1995). A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1910. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press. ISBN 0-87919-132-5.
  • Reutinger, Joan (September 1997). "Olompali Park Filled With History". The Coastal Post. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012.
  • Silliman, Stephen (2004). Lost Laborers in Colonial California, Native Americans and the Archaeology of Rancho Petaluma. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2381-9.
  • Shumway, Burgess M. (1988). California Ranchos: Patented Private Land Grants Listed by County. San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press. ISBN 0-89370-935-2.
  • Teather, Louise (1986). Place Names of Marin. San Francisco, CA: Scottwall Associates. ISBN 0-9612790-9-5.

Further reading

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  • Burrows, Jack (2000). Black Sun of the Miwok. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. ISBN 0826322379.
  • Callaghan, Catherine (1970). Bodega Miwok Dictionary. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Kelly, Isabel (1978). "Coast Miwok". In Sturtevant, William C.; Heizer, Robert F. (eds.). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 414–425. ISBN 0-16-004578-9.
  • Kroeber, Alfred L. (1925). "30: The Miwok". Handbook of the Indians of California. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin. Vol. 78. Washington, DC: Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution – via Yosemite Online Library.
  • Merriam, C. Hart (April 1916). "Indian Names in the Tamalpais Region". California Out-of-Doors. Vol. 118.
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