History of terrorism

The history of terrorism is a history of the various types of terrorism and terrorist individuals and groups.

Definition

For more details and the etymology of the word, see "Definition of terrorism"

For the purposes of this article the definition used will be the one made in a United Nations report entitled Larger Freedom on 17 March 2005:

"[any action] intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."

Terrorism is usually used only to describe the violence of non-governmental organisations. In general, acts of policy by a government taken against civilians are considered either war crimes (if during wartime) or crimes against humanity (peacetime) and not terrorism. An exception is state-sponsored terrorism, which is where a government assists an NGO which commits the terrorism.

Underground resistance groups are almost always branded terrorist by the authorities they oppose.

Ancient World

Sicarii Zealots

Political scientists see the radical Sicarii offshoot of the Jewish Zealots as one of the earliest forerunners of modern terrorism. Like modern terrorists, they intended their actions to suggest a message to a wider target audience: in this instance, the Roman imperial officials and all pro-Roman and collaborationist Jews.

Al-Assasin

The Hashshashin (also Hashishin, Hashashiyyin or Assassins) were an offshoot of the Ismā'īlī sect of Shia Muslims. After a quarrel about the succession of leadership in the ruling Fatimide dynasty in Cairo around the year 1090, the losing Nizāriyya faction were driven from Egypt. They established a number of fortified settlements in present day Iran, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon (see Shia Crescent) under the charismatic leader Hasan i Sabbah. Persecuted as infidels by the dominant Sunni sect in the Muslim world, they sent dedicated suicidal assassins to eliminate prominent Sunni leaders whom they considered "impious usurpers." The sect was reduced by the invading Mongols, their last stronghold being flattened by Hülegü Khan in the year 1272. Some scholars believe the term Hashshashin, a name given to them by their enemies, was derived from the Arabic "haššāšīn" (حشّاشين, "hashish user"), which they are alleged to have ingested prior to their attacks, but this etymology is disputed. The sect referred to themselves as al-da'wa al-jadīda (Arabic:الدعوة الجديدة), which means the new doctrine, and were known within the organization as Fedayeen.

Seventeenth century

Gunpowder Plot (1605)

Main article: Gunpowder Plot

On November 5 1605 a group of conspirators, led by Guy Fawkes, attempted to destroy the English Parliament on the State Opening, by detonating a large quantity of gunpowder secretly placed beneath the building. The design was to kill King James I and the members of both houses of Parliament. In the resulting anarchy, the conspirators planned to implement a coup and restore the Catholic faith to England. However the plan was betrayed and then thwarted. The event is still annually celebrated in Britain with fireworks displays and large bonfires on 5 November each year.

The aims of the conspirators are frequently compared to modern terrorists; however, this is disputed. The plotter's aims were nothing short of a total revolution in the government of England, which would have killed the King along with leading noblemen and led to the installation of a Catholic monarch. As such the plot can be regarded as a treasonous act of attempted regicide.

Eighteenth century

Sons of Liberty

The Sons of Liberty were an underground group opposed to British Rule in the colonies, who committed several attacks, most famous among these was the Boston Tea Party.

The Terror (1793-1794)

"Enemies of the people" headed for the guillotine during the Reign of Terror.

Main article: Reign of Terror

The Reign of Terror (September 5 1793 – July 28 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) was a period of about eleven months during the French Revolution when struggles between rival factions led to mutual radicalization which took on a violent character with mass executions by guillotine.

The victims of the Reign of Terror totaled approximately 40,000. Among people who were condemned by the revolutionary tribunals, about 8 percent were aristocrats, 6 percent clergy, 14 percent middle class, and 70 percent were workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, and other purported crimes.

Nineteenth century

Anarchism

Anarchists were the most prolific terrorists of the 19th century, with the terroristic tendencies of both nationalism and political movements of communism or fascism still in their infancy. The disjointed attacks of various anarchist groups lead to the assassination of Russian Tsars and US Presidents but had little real political impact.

Tsarist Russia

In Russia, by the mid-19th century, the intelligentsia grew impatient with the slow pace of Tsarist reforms, which had slowed considerably after the attempted assassination of Alexander II of Russia. Radicals then sought instead to transform peasant discontent into open revolution. Anarchists like Mikhail Bakunin maintained that progress was impossible without destruction. Their objective was nothing less than complete destruction of the state. Anything that contributed to this goal was regarded as moral. With the development of sufficiently powerful, stable, and affordable explosives, the gap closed between the firepower of the state and the means available to dissidents. The main group responsible for the resulting campaign of terror - Narodnaya Volya (Народная воля - People's Will) (1878-81) - used the word 'terrorist' proudly. They developed certain ideas that were to become the hallmark of subsequent terrorism in many countries. They believed in the targeted killing of the 'leaders of oppression'; they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age - symbolized by bombs and bullets - enabled them to strike directly and discriminately. People's Will had only 30 members. Despite the efforts of the state police People's Will attempted several assassination attempts upon the Tsar, culminating in the assassination of Tsar Alexander II on 13 March 1881, killing him as he was travelling by train.

Irish Republican Brotherhood

In 1867 the Irish Republican Brotherhood, a revolutionary nationalist group with support from Irish-Americans, carried out attacks in England. These were the first acts of "republican terrorism", which became a recurrent feature of British history, and these Fenians were the precursor of the Irish Republican Army. The ideology of the group was Irish nationalism.

Nationalist terrorism

The Fenians, and the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) may be considered the prototype of all 'nationalist terrorism', and equally illustrate the (itself controversial) expression that "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". At least one of these groups achieved its goals: an independent Ireland came into being. So did an independent Macedonia, but the original IMRO probably contributed little to this outcome.

Some groups resorted to the use of dynamite, as did Catalan nationalists such as La Reixa and Bandera Negra.

John Brown in 1859

John Brown

John Brown was an abolitionist who advocated armed opposition to slavery. He committed several terrorist attacks and was also involved in the illegal smuggling of slaves. His most famous attack was upon the armory at Harpers Ferry, though the local forces would soon recapture the fort and Brown, trying and executing him for treason. His death would make him a martyr to the abolitionist cause, one of the origins of the American Civil War, and a hero to the Union forces that fought in it.

Ku Klux Klan (1865)

Main article: Ku Klux Klan

The original Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was created after the end of the American Civil War on December 24 1865, by six educated, middle-class Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee. It soon spread into nearly every southern state of the United States. The Klan has advocated what is generally perceived as white supremacy, antisemitism, racism, anti-Catholicism, homophobia, and nativism. They have often used terrorism, violence and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress African Americans and other groups.

The name "Ku Klux Klan" has been used by many different unrelated groups, but they all seem to center on the belief of white supremacy. From its creation to the present day, the number of members and influence has varied greatly. However, there is little doubt that, especially in the southern United States, it has at times wielded much political influence and generated great fear among African Americans and their supporters. At one time the KKK controlled the governments of Tennessee, Indiana, Oklahoma, and Oregon, in addition to some of the Southern U.S. legislatures.

Twentieth century

Suffragette

Main article: Suffragette

In their quest for equal voting rights for women, some suffragettes grew disillusioned with the apparent failure of political protest and civil disobedience. Some turned to violence, and began attacking government officials who opposed suffrage and in one incident a member of the UK Parliament's home was burnt to the ground.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (1914)

Main article: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot to death in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins.

The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife produced widespread shock across Europe. The Austro-Hungarian Empire produced a list of demands, which became known as the July Ultimatum and presented it to Serbia. This ultimatum contained specific demands aimed at destroying the funding and operation of terrorist organizations which arguably had led to the assassination. In addition, it contained demands that Serbia suppress any "propaganda" against Austria-Hungary in Serbia, even by private persons. Some have claimed that the ultimatum was designed to create a casus belli to enable Austria-Hungary to invade and punish Serbia.

After receiving a telegram of support from Russia, Serbia mobilized its army and replied that it would agree to some of the demands, partially accept some, and politely rejected the rest. Austria-Hungary rejected Serbia's conditional acceptance of part of the ultimatum and broke off diplomatic relations.

After a minor incident, Austria-Hungary declared war, and this set into motion a series of events which led to World War I.

KKK (1915)

A reincarnation of the 19th century Ku Klux Klan arose in the United States in 1915, and became active for several decades, using terrorist tactics to promote a doctrine of white supremacy.

Irgun (1936-1948)

The hotel after the bombing

Main article: Irgun

Irgun was a clandestine militant Zionist group that operated in Palestine from 1931 to 1948. In addition to smuggling Jews into Palestine, the Irgun began in 1936 a policy of committing terrorist attacks against random Arabs as retribution for attacks and threats against Jews . These attacks were intended to instill fear in the Arab side, in order to cause the Arabs to wish for peace and quiet. These "retaliation and revenge" acts continued until the formation of the State of Israel in 1948.

In addition to the terrorist acts against Arabs, the Irgun also was involved in fighting against the British rule of Palestine. Their goal was to respond against British policies they disagreed with, and ultimately, to force the British to grant Jews the right to form their own nation in Palestine, Their most famous attack was the bombing of the King David Hotel which was the centre of the British administration in Palestine. In 1948, the group was formally dissolved and its members integrated into the newly formed Israeli Defense Forces.

World War II

Some of the most successful terrorist groups were the vast array of guerilla, partisan, and resistance movements that were organised and supplied by the Allies during World War II. The British Special Operations Executive (SOE) conducted operations in every theatre of the war and provided an invaluable contribution to allied victory. On the eve of D-Day it organised with the French resistance the complete destruction of the rail and communication infrastructure of western France perhaps the largest coordinated terrorist attack in history. The SOE effectively invented modern terrorism, pioneering most of the tactics, techniques and technologies that are the mainstays of terrorism we know today.

Nationalism and the End of Empire

Many of the resistance groups of World War II would go to become nationalist terrorist groups. The Việt Minh that had fought the Japanese would fight the returning French (and later the Americans), and the Malayan resistance would turn on their former British allies and fight during the Malayan Emergency. As the old European empire's dissolved many nationalist groups fought campaigns against colonial powers, the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya being a notable example.

Cold War proxies

Throughout the Cold War both sides made extensive use of terrorist organizations to carry on a war by proxy. For example many of the Islamic terrorists of today were trained by the US and UK to fight the USSR in Afganistan., Similar groups such as the Viet Cong received training from Soviet and Chinese military "advisers". NATO ran a Europe wide network called Operation Gladio which committed both false flag terrorism and would have committed insurgent attacks in the event of a soviet invasion.

Ireland

Ireland has had a turbulent and violent history in the 20th century. Both Loyalists, Republicans and even the Paramilitary elements of the British government could be considered terrorists as could the Republic of Ireland government as a state sponsor.

IRA

Main article: Provisional Irish Republican Army

The devastation on Corporation Street in Manchester after the IRA bombing of 1996

After the IRA (1922-1969) were declared illegal they engaged in a bombing campaign during World War II, but probably the best known is that carried out by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles between 1969 and 1997 with the Provisional Irish Republican Army conducting bombings, assassinations and even mortar attacks on 10 Downing Street [1].

ETA

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna or ETA (Basque for "Basque Homeland and Freedom"; IPA: [ˈɛːta]), is an armed Basque nationalist separatist organization. Founded in 1959, it evolved from a group advocating traditional cultural ways to an armed group demanding Basque independence.

Since 1968 to date ETA has killed 821 people and committed dozens of kidnappings. ETA is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by both the Spanish and French authorities as well as the European Union as a whole, the United States, and the United Nations. More than 500 members of the organization are incarcerated in prisons in Spain, France and other countries.

All formulations of ETA's goals have centered on sovereignty and self-determination for the Basque Country. The group's ideology is Marxist-Leninist.

ETA's motto is [Bietan jarrai] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ("Keep up on both"). This refers to the two figures in the its symbol, a snake (representing politics) wrapped around an axe (representing armed fight).

Umkhonto we Sizwe (South Africa 1961-1990)

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) was the military wing of the African National Congress, which was opposed to the racist apartheid policies of the South African government. MK launched its first guerrilla attacks against government installations on 16 December 1961. It was subsequently classified as a terrorist organization by the South African government and was banned. It waged a guerrilla campaign and was responsible for many bombings. Its first leader was Nelson Mandela and he was tried and imprisoned for his involvement in such acts. With the end of apartheid in South Africa, the Umkhonto we Sizwe was incorporated into the South African armed forces.

PLO (1964-c.1988)

Main article: Palestine Liberation Organization

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was formed in 1964 as a political and paramilitary organization, regarded by the Arab League since October 1974 as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people." Founded by the Arab League in 1964, its goal was the destruction of the State of Israel through armed struggle.

In addition to fighting against Israeli political and military targets, the PLO and/or its factions have committed various terrorist acts against civilians, including the Munich Massacre (see below) and the Achille Lauro Hijacking (see below). The PLO has had several different factions, some of which have been more violent than others. The PLO has acted as an umbrella organization with limited control over all of its members.

In a speech to the UN General Assembly on 13 December 1988, Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the PLO, said:

"And yet, I, as chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, hereby once more declare that I condemn terrorism in all its forms, and at the same time salute those sitting before me in this hall who, in the days when they fought to free their countries from the yoke of colonialism, were accused of terrorism by their oppressors, and who today are the faithful leaders of their peoples, stalwart champions of justice and freedom."

Colombian terrorist groups

Several paramilitary groups formed in Colombia in the 1960s and afterwards, including the Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), and the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC). Originally created as leftist revolutionary groups (except for the AUC), all have conducted numerous attacks on civilians and civilian infrastructure, and are widely viewed in the West as terrorist organizations.

Munich Massacre (1972)

Plaque in front of the Israeli athletes' quarters commemorating the victims of the Munich massacre.

Main article: Munich massacre

The Munich massacre occurred during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, when members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian organization Black September, a militant group with ties to Yasser Arafat’s Fatah organization. By the end of the ordeal, the group had killed eleven Israeli athletes and one German police officer.

In the late 1990s, British author and television presenter Simon Reeve called the Munich Massacre one of the most significant incidents of recent times, and states that it "thrust the Palestinian cause into the world spotlight, set the tone for decades of conflict in the Middle East, and launched a new era of international terrorism".

Iranian Embassy Siege (1980)

Main article: Iranian Embassy Siege

In late 1980, six Iranian gunmen sieged the Iranian Embassy in London, led by a man known as Salim. 26 hostages were taken, mostly Embassy workers who were also Iranian, but also including embassy police guard PC Trevor Lock, BBC sound man Sim Harris, BBC news organizer Chris Cramer and tourists who had stopped by to collect visas. The British SAS were called by the British Prime Minister to handle the hostage situation. The SAS watched the situation from the Ethiopian Embassy, adjacent to the Iranian Embassy. The Iranian leader became aware and announced he would kill one hostage every 45 minutes.

The SAS launched an Iranian government-approved assault after the first hostage was executed. Five Iranian gunmen were killed and one, Fowzi Nejad, was arrested and later sentenced to prison. Nineteen hostages were set free, but one was killed and two were injured in the cross-fire.

Aum Shinrikyo (1984-1995)

Main article: Aum Shinrikyo

Aum Shinrikyo, now known as Aleph, is a Japanese religious group founded by Shoko Asahara. From its beginnings in 1984 until 1995, when most of the senior members were arrested, the group committed various terrorist acts including the Matsumoto incident and the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway (see below).

Between between 1990 and 1995, the group attempted several apparently unsuccessful acts of biological terrorism using botulin toxin and anthrax spores.

After the Tokyo subway attack, at the cult's headquarters in Kamikuishiki, Japan, police found explosives, chemical weapons and biological warfare agents, such as anthrax and Ebola cultures, and a Russian Mil Mi-17 helicopter. There were stockpiles of chemicals which could be used for producing enough sarin to kill four million people. Police also found laboratories to manufacture drugs such as LSD, methamphetamines, and a crude form of truth serum, a safe containing millions of dollars worth in cash and gold, and cells, many still containing prisoners.

Achille Lauro Hijacking (1985)

Main article: Achille Lauro

On October 7 1985, four men representing the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) took control of the Achille Lauro, a passenger ship off Egypt while she was sailing from Alexandria to Port Said within Egypt. They killed an American passenger, Leon Klinghoffer.

This was a significant event for several reasons.

One reason was that after being granted safe conduct by Egypt in exchange for the rest of the hostages, the hijackers boarded a chartered EgyptAir 737 to Tunisia. The plane was intercepted in mid-air by U.S. Navy fighter planes and forced to land in Italy, where they were arrested. This signaled a U.S. determination to apprehend persons killing Americans despite some political complications.

Another reason is that this incident brought heavy criticism upon the Palestine Liberation Front and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) due to the murder of Leon Klinghoffer, a 69 year old man in a wheelchair.

Lockerbie bombing (1988)

Main article: Pan Am Flight 103

Pan Am Flight 103 was the Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) third daily scheduled transatlantic flight from London's Heathrow International Airport to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport. On December 21 1988 it was destroyed by Libyan terrorist mid flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie. The bombing was widely regarded as an assault on a symbol of the United States, and with 189 of the victims being Americans, it stood as the deadliest attack against the United States until the September 11, 2001 attacks. Pan Am entered bankruptcy partly as a result of the attack.

On January 31, 2001, Libyan Abdel Basset Ali al-Megrahi was convicted by a panel of three Scottish judges of bombing the flight. He was sentenced to 27 years imprisonment for the attack. In 2002 Libya offered financial compensation to the families in exchange for lifting of UN and U.S. sanctions.

Matsumoto incident (1994)

Main article: Matsumoto incident

The Matsumoto incident was an occurrence of sarin poisoning that happened in Matsumoto, Japan, on the evening of June 27 and the morning of June 28 1994. Seven people were killed and over 200 were harmed by sarin gas that was released from a truck in the Kaichi Heights neighborhood.

Police investigations focused only on an innocent local resident and Aum Shinrikyo was only blamed after the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway (below). Some believe this was the first use of weapons of mass destruction by a terrorist group.

Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway (1995)

Main article: Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway

The sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway, usually referred to in the Japanese media as the subway sarin incident (地下鉄サリン事件, chikatetsu sarin jiken) was an act of domestic terrorism perpetrated by members of Aum Shinrikyo on March 20 1995.

In five coordinated attacks, the conspirators released sarin gas on several lines of the Tokyo Metro, killing twelve people, severely injuring fifty and causing temporary vision problems for nearly a thousand others.

Unlike the Matsumoto incident, this attack received widespread international attention.

Oklahoma City bombing (1995)

Main article: Oklahoma City bombing

The Oklahoma City bombing was considered a terrorist act against the U.S. Government. The attack on April 19 1995 was aimed at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, a U.S. government office complex in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The attack claimed 168 lives and left over 800 injured.

It may be questioned whether the bombing was a terrorist act or not since the target was a government installation. But perhaps the it strongest argument against calling it a terrorist act is that the actions of Timothy McVeigh, who was convicted and executed for his role in the bombing, seem to have been more to get revenge on the government rather than have any real political goal. He stated, "What the U.S. government did at Waco and Ruby Ridge was dirty. And I gave dirty back to them at Oklahoma City,"

Twenty-First Century

9/11 (2001)

September 11 2001 - The North and South towers of the World Trade Center burn.

Main article: September 11, 2001 attacks

Arguably, the most widely known act of non-political terrorism was when nineteen terrorists affiliated with al-Qaeda hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners and crashed two of them into the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. As a result of the attacks, both of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers completely collapsed. Not including the hijackers, nearly 3,000 people died during the attacks, and the attacks prompted drastic changes in United States foreign and domestic policy and security protocol, and placed national security at the forefront of American political dialogue. The so called War on Terrorism is ongoing US military response to the attack, which now the focus of American security and foreign policy.

Statistics

Since 1968, the U.S. State Department has tallied deaths due to terrorism. In 1985, it counted 816 deaths, the highest annual toll until then. The deaths decreased since the late 1980s, then rose to 3,295 in 2001, mainly as a result of the September 11, 2001 attacks, which took about 3,000 lives. In 2003, more than 1,000 people died as a result of terrorist acts. Many of these deaths resulted from suicide bombings in Chechnya, Iraq, India and Israel. It does not tally victims of state terrorism.

Data from the National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism Terrorism Knowledge Base showed a similar decline since the 1980s, especially in Western Europe. On the other hand, Asia experienced an increase in international terrorist attacks. Other regions experienced less consistent patterns over time. From 1991 to 2003, there was a consistent increase in the number of casualties from international terrorist attacks in Asia, but few other consistent trends in casualties from international terrorist attacks. Three different regions had, in three different years, a few attacks with a large number of casualties. Statistically, distribution of the severity of terrorist attacks follows a power law, much like that for wars and also natural disasters like earthquakes, floods and forest fires.

See also

• Definition of terrorism
• List of terrorist incidents
• Propaganda of the deed