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{{for|the pre-history of the region|Pre-history of the Southern Levant}}
{{for|a history of the modern state of Israel|History of Israel}}
{{for|an overview of the history of the region called Palestine|History of Palestine}}
{{for|an overview of the history of the general region|History of the Levant}}

The '''history of Ancient [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]''' is known to us from ancient sources including [[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]] or [[Hebrew Bible]] (known to [[Christianity]] as the [[Old Testament]]), and later classical writings such as the [[Talmud]], the writings of [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], [[Artapanus of Alexandria|Artapanas]], [[Philo of Alexandria]] and [[Josephus]], critical examination of medieval material such as the [[Ethiopia]]n ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'', and supplemented by ancient sources uncovered by [[archaeology]] including [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Moabite]], [[Akkadian language|Assyrian]], [[Babylon]]ian as well as Israelite and Judean inscriptions.
<!-- The infobox does not belong in a history article. Create a separate article for the former country and use it there.
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Malchut Yisrael
|conventional_long_name = [[United Monarchy|United Monarchy of Israel]]
|common_name = Israel
|continent = Asia
|region = Mediterranean
|image_map = David-and-solomon.jpg
|era = [[Iron Age]], [[Shishaq|Pharaoh Shishaq]], [[Philistines]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Queen of Sheba]]
|government_type = Constitutional Monarchy
|year_start = 1020 BCE
|year_end = 928 BCE
|p1 = Samuel (Bible)
|p2 = Canaan
|s1 = Kingdom of Israel
|s2 = Kingdom of Judah
|capital = [[Jerusalem]]
|latd= 41 |latm= 54 |latNS= N |longd= 12 |longm= 30 |longEW= E
|common_languages = [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]]
|religion = [[First Temple]] [[Judaism]]
|leader1 = [[Saul|Saul Ben Kish]]
|year_leader1 = 1020-1005
|leader2 = [[Ishbaal]]
|year_leader2 = 1005-1003
|leader3 = [[David]]
|year_leader3 = 1005-965
|leader4 = [[Solomon|Shlomo Ben David]]
|year_leader4 = 965-928
|title_leader = [[King of the Jews|Kings of Israel]]
|legislature = [[Government of ancient Israel]] and [[Sanhedrin]].}}-->
[[William Dever]] <ref>Dever, William G. (2001) "What did the Biblical Writers Know and When did they know it?" (Eerdmans)</ref> suggests that rather than there being just one history there are in fact multiple histories and that we can distinguish nine types of history of Israel and Judah as follows.

#Theological history – the relationship between the God(s) and their believers.
#Political history – usually the account of “Great Men”, is generally episodic, chauvinistic and propagandist
#Narrative history – a running chronology of events
#Socio-cultural history – a history of institutions, including their social underpinnings in family, clan, tribe and social class and the state
#Intellectual history – the literary history of ideas and their development, context and evolution as expressed through texts and documents
#Cultural history – is based upon a larger context of overall cultural evolution, demography, socio-economic and political structure and ethnicity
#Technological history – a history of the techniques by which humans adapt to, exploit and make use of the resources of their environment
#Natural history – is a geographic history of how humans discover and adapt to the ecological understandings of their natural environment
#Material history – as shown in the study of artifacts as correlates of human changes in behaviour.

Archeology can provide assistance in 3,4,6,7,8,9. Conventional “Biblical” textual history can provide assistance in 1,2, 3 and 5.

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}

==Introduction==
The history of the region later claimed by the states of Judah and Israel offers particular problems for the modern historian. Because of the association of this area with the scriptural accounts found in the Bible, there is a tendency to view the history of the southern [[History of the Levant|Levant]] from an almost purely biblical perspective, giving scant attention to the post biblical period. Archaeology of the area has tended to be viewed principally through the biblical account<ref>Whitelam, Keith (1997),"The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History (Routledge)</ref>, making it difficult to understand its history within the modern archaeological context of the [[Ancient Near East]]ern region as a whole.

It has also been argued that the Israelites were themselves Canaanites, and that "historical Israel", as distinct from "literary" or "biblical" Israel, was a subset of Canaanite culture. "Canaan", when used in this sense, refers to the entire ancient Levant down to about 100 CE, including the kingdoms of Israel and Judah<ref>Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.16</ref>. For example, Mark Smith states: <blockquote>"Despite the long regnant model that the 'Canaanites' and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and 'Canaanites' in the Iron I period (ca. 1200-1000). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from 'Canaanite' culture.....In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." <ref name="Smith">Smith, Mark "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (pp6-7)</ref></blockquote>

Smith continues: <blockquote>“The change in the scholarly understanding of early Israel’s culture has led to the second major change in perspective, which involves the nature of the Yahwistic cult. With the change in perspective concerning Israel’s ‘Canaanite’ background, long-held notions about Israelite religion are slowly eroding. Baal and Asherah are part of Israel’s ‘Canaanite’ heritage, and the process of the emergence of Israelite monolatry was an issue of Israel's breaking with its own 'Canaanite' past and not simply of avoiding ‘Canaanite’ neighbours. Although the Biblical witness accurately represented the existence of Israelite worship of Baal and perhaps Asherah as well, this worship was not so much a case of Israelite syncretism with the religious practices of ‘Canaanite’ neighbours, as some biblical passages depict it, as it was an instance of old Israelite religion." <ref name="Smith"/> </blockquote>

Some writers consider the different source materials to be in conflict. See [[The Bible and History]] for further information. This is a controversial subject, with implications in the fields of [[religion]], [[politics]] and [[diplomacy]].
===Non-Biblical confirmation===

The nature and precise dates of events, and the precision by which they may be stated, are subject to continuing discussion and challenge. There are no biblical events whose precise year can be validated by external sources before the possible attack by Pharaoh [[Shoshenk I]], identified with the biblical [[Shishak]] (=striker) in 925 BCE. The first independent confirmation of the biblical record is the [[Mesha Stele]] which dates back to the early 9th century BCE with the rise of [[Omri]], King of Israel. All earlier dates are [[extrapolation]]s and conjecture. Recently, however, (November 2008), archaeologists from [[Hebrew University]] have discovered a 3000 year old [[ostracon]] with five lines of Hebrew text written in Proto-Canaanite script at the [[Elah Fortress]] at [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]]. [[Carbon-14 dating]] puts this ostracon at the time of [[King David]] and the [[United Monarchy|United Kingdom]], and the location is in the area where, according to the Bible, David slew [[Goliath]]. <ref> Kalman, Matthew, [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/17/MNS314468L.DTL"New evidence surfaces of David's kingdom,"] San Francisco Chronicle November 17, 2008 </ref><ref>[http://www.alphagalileo.org/index.cfm?_rss=1&fuseaction=readrelease&releaseid=533534 AlphaGalileo] "Earliest known Hebrew text in Proto-Canaanite script discovered in area where David slew Goliath" November 2, 2008</ref>

The Bible does not render itself very easily to these calculations: mostly, it does not state any time period longer than a single lifetime and a historical line must be reconstructed by adding discrete quantities, a process that naturally introduces [[rounding error]]s. The earlier dates presented here, and their accuracy, reflect a ''[[The Bible and History#Biblical maximalism|maximalist]]'' view, in that it uses the Bible as its sole source.
Others, known as ''[[Biblical minimalism|minimalists]]'', often dispute that some of the events happened at all, thus making the dating of them moot: for instance, if the very existence of the United Kingdom is in doubt, it is pointless to claim that it disintegrated in 928 BCE. For example, Philip Davies shows how the [[biblical canon|canon]]ical biblical account can only have been composed for a people with a long literate tradition such as found only in Late Persian or early Hellenistic times, and argues that accounts of earlier periods are largely reconstructions based mainly upon oral and other traditions.<ref>Davies, Philip (1998), "Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures" (Knox Press)</ref> Minimalists tend to accept those events which have independent archaeological corroborations; as for example the Mesha Stele. Their argument comes into play in the earlier period where the biblical account seems most at odds with what has been discovered by modern [[archaeology]].

Another problem is caused by disagreements about terminology of historical periodization. For example, the period at the end of the [[Early Bronze Age]] or the beginning of the [[Middle Bronze Age]] is called EB-MB by [[Kathleen Kenyon]],<ref>Kenyon, Kathleen M and Moorey, P.R.S. (1987), "The Bible and Recent Archaeology", (Atlanta, 1987), pp. 19-26.</ref> MB I by [[William Foxwell Albright]], Middle Canaanite I by [[Yohanan Aharoni]],<ref>Aharoni, Yohanan. (1978) "The Archaeology of the Land of Israel"
(Philadelphia, 1978), pp. 80-89.</ref>, and Early Bronze IV by [[William Dever]] and [[Eliezer Oren]].

==Civilizations of Israel==
[[Image:Greater Israel map.jpg|thumb|300px|Map showing one interpretation of the borders of the [[Promised Land]], based on [[Covenant (biblical)#Abrahamic Covenant|God's promise to Abraham]] ({{bibleverse||Genesis|15|HE}}).]]
The [[Book of Genesis]] traces the beginning of Israel to three patriarchs of the Jewish people, [[Abraham in History and Tradition|Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], the last also known as ''Israel'' from which the name of the land was subsequently derived. [[Jacob]], called a "wandering [[Aramaean]]" (Deuteronomy 26:5), the grandson of Abraham, had travelled back to Harran, the home of his ancestors, to obtain a wife. Whilst returning from Haran to Canaan, he crossed the [[Jabbok]], a tributary on the Arabian side of the [[Jordan River]] (Genesis 32:22-33). After having sent his family and servants away that night, he wrestled with a strange man at a place henceforth called [[Penuel|Peniel]], who in the morning asked him his name. As a result, he was renamed "Israel", because he had "wrestled with God" and became, in time, the father of twelve sons by [[Leah]] and [[Rachel]], (daughters of [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]]), and their maidservants [[Bilhah]] and [[Zilpah]]. The twelve were considered the "[[Children of Israel]]." These stories of the origins of the [[Israelites]] locate them first on the east bank of the Jordan. The stories of Israel move to the west bank with the story of the sacking of [[Shechem]] (Genesis 34:1-33), after which the hill area of Canaan is assumed to have been the historical core of the area of Israel.

[[William F. Albright]], [[Nelson Glueck]] and [[E. A. Speiser]], located these Genesis accounts at the end of Middle Bronze I and at the beginning of Middle Bronze II based on three points: personal names, mode of life, and customs.<ref> Halsall, Paul (editor)"Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Israel" [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook06.html#Pre-Israelite%20Canaan/Palestine/Syria]</ref> Other scholars, however, have suggested later dates for the Patriarchal Age as these features were long-lived characteristics of life in the Ancient Near East. [[Cyrus Gordon]],<ref>Gordon, Cyrus H. (1997), "Genesis: World of Myths and Patriarchs" (New York University Press)</ref> basing his argument on the rise of nomadic pastoralism and monotheism at the end of the Amarna Age, suggested that they more properly apply to the Late Bronze Age. [[John Van Seters]], on the basis of the widespread use of [[camels]], of [[Philistines|Philistine]] kings at [[Gerar]], of a [[origins of money|monetarised economy]] and the purchase of land, argued the story belongs to the [[Iron Age]]. Other scholars (particularly, [[Martin Noth]] and his students) find it difficult to determine any period for the Patriarchs. They suggest that the importance of the biblical texts are not necessarily their historicity, but how they function within the Israelite society of the [[Iron Age]].

==Ancient Egyptian domination==

The biblical book of Genesis relates how the [[Children of Israel]] became Egyptian slaves. There are various modern explanations given for the circumstances under which this occurred. A few historians believe that this may have been due to the changing political conditions within Egypt. In [[1600s BCE|1650 BCE]], northern Egypt was conquered by tribes, apparently a mixture of [[Semitic]] and [[Hurrian]] peoples, known as the [[Hyksos]] by the [[Egyptians]]. The Hyksos were later driven out by [[Ahmose I]], the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. [[Ahmose I]] reigned approximately [[1550s BCE|1550]] - [[1520s BCE|1525 BCE]], founding the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Egyptian dynasty]] which ushered in a new age for Egypt which we call the [[New Kingdom]]. Ahmose destroyed the Hyksos capital at [[Avaris]], and the succeeding Pharaohs conquered the Hyksos city of [[Saruhen]] (near Gaza),<ref>Mayani, Zacharie "Les Hyksos et le monde de la Bible"</ref> as well as [[Canaanite]] confederations at [[Megiddo]], [[Hazor]] and [[Kadesh]]. [[Thutmose III]] established Egypt's empire in the western Near East, destroying a Canaanite confederation at [[Megiddo]] and taking the city of [[Jaffa|Joppa]], and extending it from the [[Sinai]] to the [[Euphrates]] bend, the area later thought to have been the size of the Empire of [[Solomon]]. The Egyptian Empire was maintained in the area of what was to emerge as Israel and Judah, up to the reign of [[Rameses VI]] in about 1150 BCE. From then on, the chronology can only roughly be given in approximate dates for most events, until about the 9th century BCE.<ref>Only in the 9th century are there contemporary independent Assyrian sources for the House of Omri that allows the Biblical account to be independently supported</ref>

*[[1440s BCE|1440 BCE]] The Egyptian reign of [[Amenhotep II]], during which the first mention of the [[Habiru]] is found in Egyptian texts.<ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebrews.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref> Recently discovered evidence (see [[Tikunani Prism]]) indicates that many Habiru spoke [[Hurrian]], the language of the [[Hurrians]]. The Habiru were possibly a social caste rather than an ethnic group.<ref name = "ngxxim">[[Israel Finkelstein]] and [[Neil Asher Silberman]],"The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts" (2001);ISBN 0-684-86912-8</ref><ref>[[Marc van de Mieroop]],"A History of the Ancient Near East, C. 3000-323 BC" (2003);ISBN 0-631-22552-8</ref>. Yet even so, they may have been incorporated into early Israelite tribal groups.<ref>Redford, Donald (1992)"Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times" (Princeton University Press)</ref>
*c.[[1400]] First mention of the [[Shasu]] (or "wanderers") in Egyptian records, located just south of the Dead Sea. The Shasu contain a group with a [[Yahwistic]] name, although the Egyptian inscription of [[Amenhotep III]], at the Soleb temple, "Yhw in the land of the Shasu", does not use the determinative for God, or even for people, but only for the possible name of a place.
*[[1350s BCE|1350]]-[[1330s BCE|1330 BCE]] The [[Amarna Letters|Amarna correspondence]] detailed account of letters exchanged during the period of Egyptian domination in Canaan during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaton. Local mayors such as Abdi Khepa of Jerusalem and Labaya of Shechem were jockeying for power, and attempting to get the Pharaoh to act on their behalf. Akhenaton is reported to have dispatched a regiment of [[Medjay]] police to the region, to maintain order. This period is also one of the extension of [[Hittites|Hittite]] power into Northern Syria for the first time, and is noticeable for the spread of a pandemic through the region.
*[[1300s BCE|1300 BCE]] Some Bible commentaries place the birth of Moses around this time.<ref>http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/history/body1.htm Jewish Agency</ref><ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/moses.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref>
*[[1290s BCE|1292 BCE]] Egypt's 19th dynasty beginning with the reign of [[Ramesses I]]. [[Ramesses II]] ([[1270s BCE|1279]]-[[1210s BCE|1213 BCE]]) filled the land with enormous monuments, and signed a treaty with the [[Hittites]] after ceding the northern Levant to the Hittite Empire. These pharaoahs are often portrayed as those who persecuted the Hebrews in the Book of Exodus.<ref>Finkelman Cox, Penney (Producer), & Brenda Chapman (Director). (1998). <i>The Prince of Egypt</i> [Film]. Dream Works Distribution.</ref> He conducted a campaign throughout the territory of what was later to emerge as Israel, after the revolt of Shasu following the [[Battle of Kadesh]], thereby establishing an Egyptian garrison in what was later to be Moab.
*Circa [[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]] The conquering of the Hittite empire of Anatolia by allied tribes from the west. The northern, coastal Canaanites (called the [[Phoenicia]]ns by the Greeks) may have been temporarily displaced by so-called "[[Sea peoples|People of the Sea]]," but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. <ref>http://leb.net/~farras/ugarit.htm Farras Abdelnour</ref>
*[[1180s BCE|1187 BCE]] The attempted invasion of Egypt by [[Sea People]]. Amongst them were a group called the ''P-r-s-t'' (first recorded by the ancient Egyptians as ''P-r/l-s-t''), generally identified with the Philistines. They appear in the [[Medinet Habu]] inscription of [[Ramses III]]<ref>http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams/cams400w_aek11/mhabtext.html Penn State University</ref>, where he describes his victory against the [[Sea Peoples]]. [[Nineteenth-century]] Bible scholars identified the land of the Philistines (''Philistia'' or ''Peleshet'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning "invaders") with ''Palastu'' and ''Pilista'' in [[Assyria]]n inscriptions, according to ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' (1897). Other groups in addition to the [[Philistines]], were the [[Tjekker]], [[Denyen]] and [[Shardana]]. The vigorous counter-attack by Pharaoh [[Rameses III]] saw most Canaanite sites, in what was later to be Israel and Judah, destroyed. Later in the reign of this Pharaoh, Philistines and Tjekker, and possibly also Denyen, were allowed to resettle the cities of the coastal road which became known in the biblical Exodus account as "the Way of the Philistines". The name is used in the Bible to denote the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines. The five principal Philistine cities were [[Gaza]], [[Ashdod]], [[Ekron]], [[Gath (city)|Gath]], and [[Ashkelon]]. Modern archaeology has suggested early cultural links with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] world in mainland Greece. Though the Philistines adopted local Canaanite culture and language before leaving any written texts, an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] origin has been suggested for a handful of known Philistine words.
*[[1150 BCE]] Internal troubles within Egypt that lead to the withdrawal of the last Egyptian garrisons at [[Beth Shean]], the Jordan Valley, [[Megiddo]] and [[Gaza]], during the reign of [[Rameses VI]].

The [[The_Exodus|Exodus]] of the [[Israelites]] from [[Egypt]] and its [[chronology]] are much-debated. It is believed by Kenneth A. Kitchen <ref name = "pnxthp">Kitchen, Kenneth A. (2003), "On the Reliability of the Old Testament" (Grand Rapids, Michigan. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company)(ISBN 0-8028-4960-1)</ref> that the Exodus took place in the reign of [[Ramesses II]] due to the named Egyptian cities in Exodus: [[Pithom]] and [[Piramesse|Rameses]]. Archaeological evidence for an Israelite presence in the area has been found from only six years after the end of the reign of Rameses II, in the [[Merneptah Stele]].

The period marking the end of the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|19th]] and the beginning of the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th Dynasty]] was a particularly confusing one. Egyptian records document the rise of Asiatics from the region to high places within the Egyptian court. [[Chancellor Bay]] temporarily occupied the role of kingmaker, and Pharaoh [[Siptah]]'s mother came from the region. After the death of Queen [[Twosret|Twosret Meryamun]], the country lapsed into chaos, and it appears Asiatics despoiled a number of Egyptian temples before being expelled by the first king of the 20th Dynasty, Pharaoh [[Setnakhte]]. These events may lie behind the Exodus account of [[Osarseph]] given by [[Manetho]] reported later by [[Josephus]].

==Problems with conventional Biblical chronology==
{{POV-check-section|date=May 2008}}

A totaling of the reigns of the kings of Judah between the fourth year of the reign of Solomon [when he is supposed to have built the Temple], to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, is 430 years. This would suggest that the building of the temple by the United Monarchy under Solomon occurred in 1016 BCE. According to Kings 6:1, a total of 480 years was supposed to have lapsed between the Exodus and the dedication of this temple, giving it a date of 1496 BCE, as suggested by Redford<ref>Redford, Donald (1992) "Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times" (Princeton Uni Press)</ref>to have been the 9th year of Hatshepsut's reign. According to Exodus 12:40, the sojourn in Egypt was supposed to have lasted 430 years placing the descent of Israel and his family in the reign of Senwosret I's in 1926 BCE. Adding together the very long life-spans of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob would date Abraham's arrival in Canaan at 2141 BCE, and his descent into Egypt at 2116 BCE, during the 10th Kerakleopolitan Dynasty. The sojourn in Egypt would then have occupied the entire period of the 12th to the 18th Dynasty. As Numbers 32:13 allocates 40 years to the Wandering in Sinai, the conquests by Joshua must have occurred just prior to the reign of Thutmose III, when all of Canaan was possessed by Egypt. Even more astounding, according to this chronology, is the placement of Judges from 1456 to 1150 - almost exactly the period of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Unfortunately, Egyptian sources say nothing about Israel, Joshua or his successors, and the Bible says nothing of the Amenophids, Thutmosids or Ramessids of this period.<ref>Ibid pp.257-259</ref>

Clearly, the development of the Israelites in Canaan is far more complex than the picture given in the Bible.<ref>http://www.institutoestudiosantiguoegipto.com/bietak_I.htm Egyptologist [[Manfred Bietak]] 2001</ref> Research into settlement patterns suggests that the ethnogenesis of Israel as a people was a complex process involving mainly native pastoralist groups in Canaan (perhaps including [[Habiru]] and [[Shasu]]), with some infiltration from outside groups such as [[Hittites]] and [[Arameans]] from the north, as well as southern [[Shasu]] groups such as the [[Kenites]]- some of whom may have come from areas controlled by Egypt. Genetically, Palestinian Jews show closest connections with [[Kurdish people]] and other groups from Northern Iraq, suggesting that this is the area from which most of their ancestors originally came - a fact confirmed archaeologically from the [[Khirbet Kerak]] period down to the end of the Middle Bronze Age period, with the spread of the [[Hurrians]] (Biblical [[Horites]]), and in the Early Iron Age I period with the spread of Shasu (=Egyptian) and Ahlamu (=Assyrian Akkadian, i.e.wandering [[Aramaeans]]). <ref>[[William G. Dever]],"What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?" (2001);ISBN 0-8028-4794-3</ref><ref name = "civdxq">[[William G. Dever]],"Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from?" (2003);ISBN 0-8028-0975-8</ref><ref>[[Amihai Mazar]],"Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000 - 586 BCE"(1990);ISBN 0-385-42590-2</ref>

==Wandering years and the conquest of Canaan==
{{Main|Canaan}}

Exodus goes on to say that, after leaving Egypt, nearly three million <ref>[Warshttp://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext01/warje10.txt]</ref> {{Fact|date=May 2008}}Israelites who had been wandering in the desert for a generation, invaded the land of [[Canaan]], destroying major Canaanite cities such as [[Ai]], [[Jericho]] and [[Hazor]]. Eric Cline, using a smaller figure of 2.5 million people (the Biblical figure refers to 'fighting men' to which must be added wives, children and the elderly), points out that 2.5 million people marching 10 across would form a line 150 miles long.<ref> [[Eric H. Cline|Cline, Eric H.]] (2007), ''From Eden to Exile: Unravelling Mysteries of the Bible'', National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426200847 p.74</ref> The paradigm that has Ramses II<ref name = "pnxthp"/> as Exodus Pharaoh also has the conquest of Canaan and the destruction of Jericho and other Canaanite cities occur around [[1200 BCE]], despite the fact that [[Ai]] and [[Jericho]] seem to have been uninhabited at this time, having been destroyed at about 1550 BCE. Many other of the sites mentioned in the Book of [[Joshua]] also seem to have been unoccupied at this time, being synchronously present only in the seventh century BC, as suggested by Mattfield<ref>Mattfield Walter [http://www.bibleorigins.com]</ref> as the likely date for the composition of this account. Many other groups are known to have played a role in the destruction of urban centres during the late Bronze Age, such as the invading [[Sea Peoples]], among whom the Philistines were one, and the Egyptians themselves. Feuds between neighboring city-states probably played a role as well.<ref name = "ngxxim"/><ref name = "civdxq"/>

===Population changes and the history of Judah and Israel===
Dever suggests that there were about 300 newly-founded small agricultural villages from lower Galilee to the Negev in the 13th-12th century BCE (usually considered the time of Judges), all of them conspicuously absent from previous Late Bronze Age towns and settlement along the coast. The population rose from around 12,000 at the end of the Bronze Age to about 55,000 by the end of the 12th century, and rose to 75,000 by the end of the 11th century - the period of David and Solomon - with the vast majority in the north.

By the 8th century, just before the collapse and one century after the Omrides, Israel's population in the north had grown more than fivefold, to about 350,000. At the time of the Omrides it may have been even more, as Israel had lost Hazor, Dan and Bethsaida to Damascus, and the sacking of Megiddo and Taanach by Hazael of Damascus had led to a depopulation of the Jezrael. Under the Omrides, Israel was the most populous state of the Levant, probably surpassing even Damascus; but after the wars with Damascus and the coup of Jehu, it was probable that Aramaean Damascus had become the larger state. Thus, under the Omrides, the population of Israel may have been about 500,000.

The south was much less populated. Judea's population, which before the collapse of the north had been low, grew 500% to 120,000. This means, the previous size of Judea before the reign of [[Ahaz]] had been about 24,000 people in the south with 96,000 coming as refugees from the north (about 1/3rd of the total of the previous population). This would suggest that the population of Judea was less than 1/20th that of the northern kingdom. During the 10th century it would have been still smaller. These discrepancies in population have caused some historians to doubt the factual accuracy of the United Kingdom, when Israel was supposedly ruled from Jerusalem<ref>Thompson, Thomas L. (2000), "The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology And The Myth Of Israel" (Basic Books)</ref>.

But the enormous population after the fall of Israel did not last. The Assyrian campaign against Hezekiah, and the plague with which it was associated (Hezekiah himself narrowly escaped.) reduced the population by nearly 50,000 so that by the end of the monarchy, Judah's population based fairly accurately upon surveys at the time, was about 75,000, with 20% of it (about 15,000) living in Jerusalem.

The Book of Jeremiah reports that a total of 4,600 went into exile in Babylon. The Book of Kings suggests that it was ten thousand, and then eight thousand. Finkelstein suggests that 4,600 represented the heads of households and 8,000 was the total, whilst 10,000 is a rounding upwards of the second number. Jeremiah also hints that an equivalent number may have fled to Egypt. Given these figures, Finkelstein suggests that 3/4 of the population of Judah did not move.

The returnees at the time of Ezra and Nehemiah are said to be 50,000, possibly over a period of 100 years. Thus, about 50% of the total population in the Persian period, in the truncated territory of Yahud, estimated at about 100-150,000 was of the "new" post- exilic monotheism, and 50% practiced the old Canaanite pre-exilic polytheism. Given that Yehud did not include Bethsheva or Hebron, which were ruled by the Idumaeans, it is possible that the population within the border of old Judea was twice that (about 240,000). With the population of Israel nearly 10 times that of the south, the total population living within the borders of monarchial Israel and Judah at the end of the Persian period together may have numbered as many as 3 million, the number recorded roughly at the time of the Jewish Revolt. At this time it was estimated that Jews may have been 1/10th of the total population of the Empire, of between 50-60 million, and that the number of Jews in Diaspora, largely living in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor (modern Turkey) was equal to the numbers living in the Land of Israel.

==Period of the Judges==
{{main|Book of Judges}}
[[Image:1759 map Holy Land and 12 Tribes.jpg|thumb|1759 map of the tribal allotments of Israel]]

If the [[Israelites]] returned to [[Canaan]] circa [[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]]<ref name = "pnxthp"/>, this was a time when the great powers of the region were neutralized by troubles of various kinds. This was the time of the "[[Sea People|Peoples of the Sea]]" during which [[Philistines]], [[Tjekker]] and possibly [[Denyen|Danites]] settled along the coast from Gaza in the south to Joppa in the north. The entire Middle East fell into a "Dark Age" from which it took centuries to recover. Recovery seems to have occurred first in trading cities of the Philistine area, passing northwards to the [[Phoenicians]], before moving inland to affect the interior areas of the Judean and Samarian hills, the historic core of Judea and Israel. According to the Biblical account, in their initial attacks under [[Joshua]], the [[Hebrews]] occupied most of Canaan, which they settled according to traditional family lines derived from the sons of Jacob and Joseph (the "tribes" of Israel). No formal government existed and the people were led by ad hoc leaders (the "judges" of the biblical [[Book of Judges]]) in times of crisis. Around this time, the name "Israel" is first mentioned in a contemporary archaeological source, the [[Merneptah Stele]].

The withdrawal of the Egyptian garrisons in about [[1140s BCE|1150 BCE]] created a power vacuum in the region in which the Canaanite tribes tried to destroy the developing power-base of the Israelite tribes of the northern and central highland areas. According to the Bible, the Israelite response was led by [[Barak]], and the Hebrew [[prophetess]] [[Deborah]], who mustered some of the Israelite tribes in a common defence. Some authors <ref>Soggin, J. Alberto, "A History of Israel: from the earliest times to the revolt of Bar Kochba"</ref> consider that the early text of the "[[Song of Deborah]]" demonstrates that the core of the Israelite state was the tribes of [[Ephraim]], [[Manasseh]], [[Machir]], and [[Benjamin]], with additional groups (for example [[Dan (biblical city)|Dan]], [[Asher]] and [[Judah]]) added later. The Bible shows that in this case the Canaanites were defeated, and the core of Israel extended north into [[Galilee]] and [[Jezreel]]. {{bibleverse||Judges|4-5|HE}}

==Origins of the United Monarchy==

As the wealth returned to the region with the end of the Late [[Bronze Age collapse]], and trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia recovered, so new interior trade routes opened up, notably that running from [[Kadesh Barnea]] in the south, through [[Hebron]] to [[Jerusalem]] and [[Lachish]] to [[Samaria]], [[Shiloh]] and [[Shechem]] and on through [[Galilee]] to [[Megiddo]] and the Plain of [[Jezreel]]. This new route threatened the trade monopoly of the Philistines, who sought to dominate the inland routes, either directly, through military intervention against the growing strength of the tribes of Israel, or indirectly, through promoting and employing mercenaries to positions of power, as [[Achish]] of [[Gath (city)|Gath]] later had employed [[King David|David]]. As outlined in the book of Deuteronomy chapter 7, Israel, to effectively resist the Philistine menace, was allowed to call for a King. Contrary to the instructions concerning whose duty it was to judge, Israel asked for a King to judge them (I Samuel 8:6, 20). According to the [[Books of Samuel]], one of the last of the judges, the nation appealed for a king because Samuel's sons, who had been appointed judges over Israel, misused the office. Although he tried to dissuade them, they were resolute and Samuel anointed [[Saul the King|Saul ben Kish]] from the tribe of [[Benjamin]] as king. Samuel's pronouncement of the kind of King they would receive seems to be in direct contrast to the one described in Deuteronomy 7. Unfortunately, no independent evidence for the existence of Saul or these events has ever been found, although the Early Iron Age I period was certainly a phase of rapid [[Philistine]] expansionism, as the biblical account would seem to propose.

==United Monarchy==
{{main|United Monarchy}}

Increasing pressure from the [[Philistines]] and other neighboring tribes, according to the Bible, forced the [[Israelites]] to unite under the king [[Saul the King|Saul]] in c. [[1050 BCE]]. The Bible describes how Saul was defeated by the Philistines, and, in his place, David, originally a shepherd from Hebron, who, while serving Saul, managed to secure an independent power base (through victory in battle) in Jerusalem. David seized Jerusalem from the earlier Jebusite rulers, who were possibly a tribe of Canaanites, and took the throne in [[1000 BCE]]. Although there is debate about the chronology of this period, as Jerusalem seems to have been a small village at best, Solomon, son of David, supposedly took the throne in [[965 BCE]]. According to the Bible, this united kingdom lasted until c. [[920 BCE]] when it split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the South as a result of irreconcilable differences between the northern and southern regions of the earlier united monarchy. As a result, two states developed separately, with Israel, the northern state, being culturally dominant. Unfortunately little if any independent archaeological confirmation of the existence of the United Monarchy has been found, and the subject remains highly controversial. Jonathan N. Tubb <ref>Tubb, Jonathan N. (2001), "The Canaanites" (British Museum Publications)</ref> argues that the two states that developed were identical culturally to the secondary Canaanite states of the Middle Eastern [[Iron Age]] II period.

==Divided Monarchy==
[[Image:Levant 830.svg|thumb|272px|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[830s BC]]E.
{{legend|#00ff00|Kingdom of Judah}}
{{legend|#008000|Kingdom of Israel}}
{{legend|#777777|Philistine city-states}}
{{legend|#3000ee|Phoenician states}}
{{legend|#7777ff|Kingdom of Ammon}}
{{legend|#ffff00|Kingdom of Edom}}
{{legend|#007777|Kingdom of Aram-Damascus}}
{{legend|#ffffff|Aramean tribes}}
{{legend|#800080|Arubu tribes}}
{{legend|#804020|Nabatu tribes}}
{{legend|#005fff|Assyrian Empire}}
{{legend|#808040|Kingdom of Moab}}]]

=== Kingdom of Israel ===
{{main|Kingdom of Israel}}

Around [[920 BCE]], according to the biblical account, [[Jeroboam]] led the revolt of the northern tribes, and established the Kingdom of Israel ({{bibleverse|1|Kings|11-14|HE}}). B. S. J. Isserlin, <ref>Isserlin B. S. J."The Israelites" (Augsburg Fortress Publishers)ISBN-10: 0800634268</ref> in his examination of the Israelites, shows, from an analysis of the geographical setting, the origins of the Israelites, their neighbors, the political history of the monarchy, the socio-economic structure, town-planning and architecture, trade, craft and industry, warfare, and literacy as well as art and religion, that the Kingdom of Israel was typical of the secondary Canaanite states established at about this time.

Economically, the Kingdom of Israel seems to have been more developed than its southern neighbor. Rainfall in this area is higher and the agricultural systems more productive. According to the biblical account, which cannot be checked by outside sources, there were 19 separate rulers of Israel.

Politically, the Kingdom of Israel seems much less stable than Judah, maintaining a form of charismatic leadership by merit and competition between ruling families who seem to have depended much more on links with outside powers such as [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Aram]] and [[Assyria]] in order to maintain their authority. This need to placate powerful neighbors was demonstrated early on during the reign of Jeroboam, when, despite reputed actions of establishing fortifications at [[Tirzah]], [[Shechem]] and [[Penuel]], Israel was invaded by Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] [[Sheshonk I]] (the Biblical [[Shishak]]) of the [[Libya]]n [[22nd Dynasty]]. The Kingdom of Israel appears to have been most powerful in the first half of the ninth century BCE, during which time [[Omri]] (a. 885-874 BCE) founded a new dynasty with its capital city at [[Samaria]] with support from the [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] city of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. Omri's son and successor, supposedly linked through dynastic marriage with Tyre, contributed 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers to a coalition of states which fought and defeated Shalmaneser III at [[Qarqar]] in 853 BCE. Twelve years later, [[Jehu]], with assistance from the Kingdom of [[Aram]] (centred in Damascus), organized a coup in which [[Ahab]] and his family were put to death. The Bible makes no reference to the fact, but Assyrian sources refer to Jehu as being a monarch of the house of Omri, which may indicate that this coup was the result of struggles within the same ruling family. Jehu is shown kneeling to the Assyrian monarch in the black obelisk of [[Shalmaneser III]], the only monarch of either of the two states for which any portrait survives.

As a result of these changes, Israel, like its southern neighbor, fell within the influence of [[Aram Damascus|Aramaean Damascus]]. King [[Hazael]] led the Arameans in battle against the forces of King [[Jehoram]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and King [[Ahaziah]] of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. After defeating them at [[Ramoth-Gilead]], Hazael repelled two attacks by the [[Assyria]]ns, seized Israelite territory east of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]] (the [[Philistine]] city of [[Gath (city)|Gath]]), and sought to take [[Jerusalem]] as well ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 12:17). A monumental Aramaic inscription discovered at [[Tel Dan]] is seen by most scholars as having been erected by Hazael after he defeated the Kings of [[Israel]] and [[Judah]].<ref>http://wiki.riteme.site/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah</ref> Recent excavations at [[Tell es-Safi]]/Gath have revealed dramatic evidence of the siege and subsequent conquest of [[Gath (city)|Gath]] by Hazael. To end this domination from its two northern neighbors, Judah appealed to [[Tiglath Pileser III]] for Assyrian intervention, which ultimately (in 720 BCE) led to the fall of Israel to the Assyrians under [[Sargon]] and to the incorporation of Israel into the Assyrian Empire. Israel fell to the [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in [[720 BCE|721 BCE]] and was taken into captivity. {{bibleverse|2|Kings|17:3-6|HE}}. Despite the attempt by Assyrians to decapitate the Israelite kingdom by settling people on its eastern frontier with the Medes, archaeological evidence shows that many people fled south to Judah at this time, whose capital city, Jerusalem, now seems to have grown by over 500%. This also seems to have been a time when many northern traditions were incorporated within the region of Judah.

This period of Israel's eclipse seems to have coincided with the rise of a line of independent prophets - [[Amos]], [[Joel]], [[Hoshea]], [[Elijah]], [[Elisha]] and [[Isaiah]]- all highly critical of the monarchs of Israel. The spiritual tradition that was later to coalesce in the biblical story, according to many biblical scholars, would have had its origins here.

=== Kingdom of Judah ===
{{main|Kingdom of Judah}}
[[Image:PLATE4AX.jpg|thumb|Jewish noblemen in ancient Judah.]][[Image:PLATE4BX.jpg|thumb|Jewish noblewomen in ancient Judah.]]The major problems in the history of the divided monarchy is that the [[Septuagint]], the Hebrew [[Masoretic text]], and [[Josephus]] all have different figures<ref>Soggin J. Alberto (1985) "A History of Israel; from the beginnings to the Bar Kochba Revolt AD135" (SCM Press)</ref>. There is a further problem on whether or not it is known if the two kingdoms used the same calendar. Furthermore, it is unclear whether the number of years monarchs reigned refer to full years, partial years, or whether the reign went from new year to new year. Although the Mesopotamian New Year was from Spring Equinox to Spring Equinox, it is still not known what period was used for counting by the time the Kingdom in which these records were recorded, ended. This is compounded by the possibility of a shift during the period to a new calendrical system, and by possible periods of co-regency amongst kings. There are also possible copyist errors, which may explain why the biblical dates seem internally inconsistent<ref>MacKenzie, Stephen L and Hayes, Stephen J (1999) "To Each His Own: Biblical Criticisms and their Application" (WJK)</ref>.

In [[920s BCE|922 BCE]], the [[Kingdom of Israel]] was divided. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the southern Kingdom, had Jerusalem as its capital and was led by [[Rehoboam]], who was responsible for leading them to war with Israel (which according to the Bible, continued during the reigns of Abijiah and Asa of Judah) and during whose reign Israel penetrated to Ramah, 5 km north of Jerusalem. Asa was supposed to have sent a delegation to Ben Hadad I, son of Tab-rimmon of Damascus (King of Aram), to attack Israel from the rear.

The Dynasty of Omri brought an end to the war with Judah and cemented a dynastic alliance through Queen [[Athaliah]], daughter of King Ahab and Jezebel of Tyre.

During the reign of [[Ahaz]], the population of Jerusalem seems to have grown enormously, possibly as a result of the arrival of many Israelite refugees fleeing from the north. The result was that the city grew from a small local market town to a sizable city. By the time of the reign of [[Hezekiah]], his son, the population seems to have swelled to over 500%<ref>Finkelsetin, Israel, and Silberman, Niel Asher (2002), "The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts" (Free Press)</ref>. Hezekiah undertook a number of major works, including the expansion of the city wall to include the new population at Jerusalem and [[Lachish]], the digging of the well of [[Siloam]], to give the city an independent source of water within the city limits, and a major expansion of the temple. Phillip Davies<ref>Davies, Phillip R. (1998), "Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures" (Westminster John Knox Press)</ref> and others suggest that at this time Jerusalem established its own scribal school for the first time, gathering the previous oral tradition into what became known as the [[Jahwist|J Source]]. The Bible also claims that Hezekiah undertook major religious reforms, attempting unsuccessfully to centralize Judean religious practices in the temple and eliminate the worship of the [[Nehushtan]] serpent, which may have been in place since the days of [[Moses]]. Hezekiah also seems to have been fascinated by the wisdom of Solomon, making a collection of the verses attributed to this monarch.

Hezekiah's ambitions seem to have been over-stretched when, in part, prompted by promises of aid from the monarchs of the Egyptian [[List of pharaohs|26th Dynasty]], he took leadership of a coalition with the [[Philistines]] and asserted independence from [[Assyria]], attempting to unify Judah and Israel. This led to disaster. Lachish was razed to the ground and its population taken in slavery to Assyria. [[Sennacherib]] boasted he had shut Hezekiah up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage. The Bible, however, speaks of the angel of the Lord having smitten the besieging Assyrians; and the account certainly does read as if there was some kind of plague (Hezekiah himself is spoken of as having been afflicted but recovered). Nevertheless, the Assyrians extracted an enormous tribute, which seems to have pauperized the Judean population for a generation, and led to the complete reversal of all of Hezekiah's reforms.

Hezekiah's son [[Manasseh]], from careful cultivation by the Assyrian monarch [[Esarhaddon]] and his son [[Ashurbanipal]], seems to have taken steps that led to the recovery of Judah's fortunes to a degree, despite the universally bad publicity which the monarch has received in the Bible. For instance, it is known that Manasseh spent time with Esarhaddon in Babylon and accompanied the latter in his invasion of Egypt.

Manasseh's son [[Ammon]] had an insignificant reign before passing the throne to his infant son [[Josiah]]. In 633 BCE, the finding of a book of Law (a "Sefer Torah") by the priest [[Hilkiah]], which was claimed to have been composed by [[Moses]], led to major reforms of the state cult. [[Martin Noth]] contended, speculating on internal grounds, that this [[Deuteronomist]] was largely composed by someone during the reign of Josiah, making the king a "hero" (i.e. [[Messiah]]), and was closely connected to the Shiloah priesthood. This period saw the eclipse and collapse of the Assyrian Empire, which led Josiah to attempt to follow in the path of Hezekiah, centralizing all worship in Jerusalem and instituting the [[Passover]]. As before, he was tempted into a power-politics too big for Judah, and he died in battle resisting the advance of Pharaoh [[Necho]]'s forces while attempting to aid the Assyrians at [[Harran]].

Judah fell to the [[Babylonia]]ns in [[580s BCE|587 BCE]] and was taken into captivity. {{bibleverse|2|Kings|25:1-9|HE}}.

== Captivity ==
=== Assyrian captivity of the Israelites ===
[[Image:Deportation of Jews by Assyrians.svg|thumb|right|350px|Deportation of Israelites by the Assyrian Empire]]
{{main|Assyrian Captivity}}
In [[722 BCE]], nearly twenty years after the initial invasions and deportations, the Assyrian King [[Sargon II|Sargon]] finally finished what [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] began in [[740s BCE|740 BCE]]. He completed the conquest of the Northern [[Kingdom of Israel]] by taking captive the capital [[Samaria]] after a three year siege (which happened to kill [[Shalmaneser V]]) and deporting the remaining Israelites, including the ruling class, to the cities of the [[Medes]] and other disputed areas, generally believed to be in or near the vicinity of conquered lands occupied by the [[Assyrian Empire]]. Conversely, peoples from those lands were deported to Samaria. Thus, the Israelites of the Northern Kingdom were dispersed amongst the nations by being planted in the [[epicenter]] of the human migration tides of [[Eurasia]]. It is believed they were ultimately assimilated into new cultures, and eventually became unaware of their original identity. According to [[First Century]] Jewish [[Rabbis]] <ref>''[[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]]'' 110b.</ref> and the historian [[Flavius Josephus]] <ref>''Antiquities of the Jews'', 11.5.2, from The Works of Josephus, translated by Whiston, W., Hendrickson Publishers. 1987. 13th Printing. p 294</ref>, they had yet returned to the land of Israel even up to the time of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] destruction of the [[Second Temple]]. With the [[Kingdom of Judah]] being dispersed once more from their homeland in [[70 CE]], there is little evidence the Northern Kingdom Israelites ever returned in any substantial representation to rejoin the [[Jews]] of the Southern Kingdom before or after that time.

===Babylonian captivity of the Judaeans===
{{main|Babylonian Captivity}}
*[[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. Conquest of Judah (Southern Kingdom) by Babylon. Part of Judah's population, primarily the nobility, was exiled to [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylon]].
*[[720s BCE|722]] & [[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. The First Dispersion, or [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]. Jews were either taken as slaves in what is commonly referred to as the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]], or they fled to Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, or Persia.<ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Exile.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref>
*[[587 BCE]]. [[Lachish]] letters, [[ostracon|ostraca]], classical Hebrew on 21 [[sherd|potsherds]]
*[[550s BCE|559 BCE]]. [[Cyrus the Great]] became King of [[Achaemenid dynasty|Persia]].<ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Persians.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref>
*[[530s BCE|539 BCE]]. The [[Babylonian Empire]] fell to Persia under Cyrus.
*[[550s BCE|550]]-[[330s BCE|333 BCE]]. The Persian Empire ruled over much of Western Asia, including Israel.

[[Image:Cyrus cilinder.jpg|thumb|[[Cyrus Cylinder]] ([[British Museum]])]]
Like most imperial powers during the Iron Age, King Cyrus allowed citizens of the empire to practice their native religion, as long as they incorporated the personage of the Persian Great King into their worship (either as a deity or semi-deity, or at the very least the subject of votive offerings and recognition). Further, Cyrus took the bold step of ending "state slavery".<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezra%201:1-1:4;&version=31; Ezra 1:1-4]</ref> These reforms are reflected in the famous [[Cyrus Cylinder]] and [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] books of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], which state that Cyrus released the Israelites from slavery and granted them permission to return to the [[Land of Israel]].

==Second Temple==
{{main|Second Temple}}
===Rebuilding the Temple===
*[[530s BC|539 BCE]]. Jews return to Jerusalem under King Cyrus. Cyrus allowed Sheshbazzar, a prince from the tribe of Judah, and [[Zerubbabel]], to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of the [[Second Temple]] began.<ref>http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ec1.htm The Jerusalem Mosaic</ref><ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/return.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref> See also {{bibleverse||Ezra|1|HE}} in [[Biblical Hebrew]], {{bibleverse||Ezra|6:3|HE}} in [[Biblical Aramaic]], {{bibleverse||Isa|44:24-45:4|HE}}.
*[[520s BCE|520]]-[[510s BCE|516 BCE]]. Completion of the Second Temple under the spiritual leadership of the Prophets [[Haggai]] and [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]]. At this time the Holy Land is a subdistrict of a Persian ''satrapy'' (province) known as [[Yehud]] and issues [[Yehud coinage]].
*c. 450 - 419 BCE. Jewish polytheism found in ancient Egyptian papyri. [[Elephantine papyri]] of Jewish military colony in Egypt demonstrate [from letters to the temple at Jerusalem] that, at this time, some Jews were [[polytheistic]]; as letters specify that [[Yahweh]] was considered to have [[Anat]] as his consort.<ref>Bezalel Porten, with J.J. Farber, C.J. Martin, G. Vittman, editors. 1996. The Elephantine Papyri in English: Three Millennia of Cross-Cultural Continuity and Change, (Brill Academic)</ref>
*[[440s BCE|444 BCE]]. Leaders of Israel's reformation. The reformation of Israel was led by Jewish scribes [[Nehemiah]] ({{bibleverse||Neh|1-6|HE}}) and [[Ezra]] {{bibleverse||Neh|8|HE}}). Ezra instituted [[synagogue]] and prayer services, and canonized the [[Torah]] by reading it publicly to the Great Assembly that he set up in Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah flourished around this era. <ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap25.html Gerald A. Larue on The Secular Web</ref> (This was contemporary with the Classical period of [[Ancient Greece]]).
*428 BCE. Building of Samaritan temple. [[Samaritans]] build their temple on [[Mount Gerizim]].

===Legacy of Alexander the Great===
[[Image:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Alexander's empire.]]
{{main|Alexander the Great|Seleucid Empire|Ptolemaic Egypt}}

*[[331 BCE]]. Defeat of The [[Persian Empire]] by Alexander the Great. The Empire of Alexander the Great included Israel. However, it is said{{Fact|date=August 2008}} that he did not attack Jerusalem directly, after a delegation of Jews met him and assured him of their loyalty by showing him certain prophecies contained in their writings.
*[[323 BCE]]. Death of [[Alexander the Great]]. In the power struggle after Alexander's death, the part of his empire that included Israel changed hands at least five times in just over twenty years. [[Babylonia]] and [[Syria]] were ruled by the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]], and [[Egypt]] by the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]].
*281-246 BCE. [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]]: rules Israel, [[Septuagint]] translation begun in [[Alexandria]], beginning of the [[Pharisees]] party and other Jewish Second Temple sects such as the [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]]. <ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Temple.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref>.
*174-163 BCE. [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]: attempts complete [[Hellenization]] of the Jews [see also [[1 Maccabees]]].

===Hasmonean Kingdom===
{{main|Hasmonean}}
[[Image:Hasmoneese rijk.PNG|thumb|100px|The extent of the Hasmonean kingdom.]]
*[[168 BCE|168]]-[[142 BCE]]. The [[Maccabees|Maccabee]] Rebellion, [[Hanukkah]] and the [[Hasmonean]] Kingdom (164-63) <ref>http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Maccabees.html Jewish Virtual Library</ref>.
*[[160 BCE|160]]-[[60 BCE]]. Beginning of the formation of the community at [[Qumran]] [from whom came the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]].
*134-104 BCE. "Age of Expansion" - [[John Hyrcanus]]'s [Ethnarch & High Priest of Jerusalem] annexation of Trans-Jordan, Samaria, Galilee and Idumea, forced conversion of Idumeans to Judaism and hiring of non-Jewish mercenaries, etc.

===Roman occupation===
[[Image:First century palestine.gif|thumb|250px|right|Iudaea and surrounding area in the 1st century]]
{{main|Iudaea Province}}

* 63 BCE. [[Pompey]] conquers Jerusalem and the region; makes it a [[Client state|client kingdom]] of Rome.
* 57-55 BCE. [[Aulus Gabinius]], proconsul of [[Syria (Roman province)#Syria in antiquity|Syria]], splits [[Hasmonean]] Kingdom into [[Galilee]], [[Samaria]] & [[Judea]] with 5 districts of [[Sanhedrin]]/[[Synedrion]] (councils of law).<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146;query=whiston%20chapter%3D%23182;layout=;loc=14.54 Antiquities of the Jews 14.5.4]: "And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at [[Jerusalem]], the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at [[Jericho]], and the fifth at [[Tzippori|Sepphoris]] in Galilee." [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=229&letter=S&search=Gabinius Jewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin]: "Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Palestine and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a sanhedrin was placed ("Ant." xiv. 5, § 4)."</ref>
* 40-39 BCE. [[Herod the Great]] appointed [[King of the Jews]] by the [[Roman Senate]].<ref>[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/war1.html Jewish War 1].14.4: [[Mark Antony]] " ...then resolved to get him made king of the Jews ... told them that it was for their advantage in the [[Parthia]]n war that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated, Antony and [[Augustus|Caesar]] went out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of the magistrates went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign." See also {{PDF|[http://www.ctsfw.edu/events/symposia/papers/sym2006steinmann.pdf]|101&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 103975 bytes -->}}</ref>
* Circa 4 BCE. Birth of [[Jesus]] and [[John the Baptist]].
* 4 BCE-39 CE. [[Herod Antipas]], [[tetrarch]] of Galilee & Perea.
* 6 CE. [[Herod Archelaus]], [[ethnarch]] of Judea, deposed by [[Augustus]]; [[Samaria]], [[Judea]] and [[Idumea]] annexed as [[Iudaea Province]] under direct Roman administration<ref>H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 246: "When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea."</ref>, capital at [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Quirinius]] becomes [[Legatus|Legate]] (Governor) of [[Syria (Roman province)#Syria in antiquity|Syria]], conducts the first Roman [[Census of Quirinius|tax census]] of Iudaea, is opposed by [[Zealots]].<ref>[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant18.html Antiquities 18]</ref>
* 7-26 CE. Brief period of peace and relative freedom of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea & [[Galilee]].<ref>[[John P. Meier]]'s [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew|''A Marginal Jew'']], v. 1, ch. 11); also H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 251: "But after the first agitation (which occurred in the wake of the first Roman census) had faded out, we no longer hear of bloodshed in Judea until the days of Pilate."</ref>
* 9 CE. Death of [[Pharisee]] leader [[Hillel the Elder]] and the temporary rise of [[Shammai]].
* 18-36 CE. [[Caiaphas]] appointed [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest]] of [[Herod's Temple]] by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate [[Vitellius]].
* 26-36 CE. [[Pontius Pilate]] appointed governor of the Roman province of [[Iudaea Province|Iudaea]], John the Baptist beheaded, and Jesus crucified during the rule of Pontius Pilate who is also deposed by Vitellius.<ref>[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant18.html Josephus' Antiquities 18].4.2: "But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before he could get to Rome Tiberius was dead."</ref>
*37-41 CE. Crisis under [[Caligula]].<ref>H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, ''The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula'', pages 254-256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37-41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the [[Julio-Claudian]] empire. Until then &mdash; if one accepts [[Sejanus]]' heyday and the trouble caused by the [[Census of Quirinius|census after Archelaus' banishment]] &mdash; there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the [[Herod's Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]]. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]]."</ref>
* 41-44 CE. [[Agrippa I|Herod Agrippa I]] appointed "King of the Jews" by [[Claudius]].
* 48-100 CE. [[Agrippa II|Herod Agrippa II]] appointed "King of the Jews" by [[Claudius]], seventh and last of the [[Herodians]].

==Jewish-Roman Wars==
{{main|Jewish-Roman Wars}}

In [[66]], the [[First Jewish-Roman War]] broke out, lasting until [[73]]. In [[67]], Vespasian and his forces landed in the north of Israel, where they received the submission of Jews from Ptolemais to Sepphoris. The Jewish garrison at Yodfat (Jodeptah) was massacred after a two month siege. By the end of this year, Jewish resistance in the north had been crushed.

In [[69]], [[Vespasian]] seized the throne after a civil war. By [[70]], the Romans had occupied Jerusalem. [[Titus]], son of the Roman Emperor, destroyed the Second Temple on the 9th of ''Av'', ie. ''Tisha B'Av'' (656 years to the day after the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE). Over 100,000 Jews died during the siege, and nearly 100,000 were taken to Rome as slaves. Many Jews fled to Mesopotamia (Iraq), and to other countries around the Mediterranean. In [[73]] the last Jewish resistance was crushed by Rome at the mountain fortress of [[Masada]]; the last 900 defenders committed suicide rather than be captured and sold into slavery.

[[Rabbi]] [[Yochanan ben Zakai]] escaped from Jerusalem. He obtained permission from the Roman general to establish a center of Jewish learning and the seat of the [[Sanhedrin]] in the outlying town of Yavneh (see [[Council of Jamnia]]). This is generally considered the beginning of [[Rabbinic Judaism]], the period when the [[Halakha]] became formalized. Some believe that the Jewish canon was determined during this time period, but this theory has been largely discredited, see also [[Biblical canon]]. Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem through this new center. The [[Sanhedrin]] became the supreme religious, political and judicial body for Jews worldwide until [[425]], when it was forcibly disbanded by the Roman government, by then officially dominated by the [[Christian Church]].

In [[132]] the [[Bar Kokhba's Revolt]] began led by [[Simon bar Kokhba]] and an independent state in Israel was declared. By [[135]] this revolt was crushed by Rome. The Romans, seeking to suppress the names "Judaea" and "Jerusalem", reorganized it as part of the province of [[Syria Palaestina|Syria-Palestine]].

==See also==
<table>
<tr>
<td width="30%">
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]]
*[[Canaan]]
*[[Chronology of the Bible]]
*[[Documentary hypothesis]] <small>(the Torah represent a combination of documents from originally independent sources.)</small>
*[[Hebrew Bible]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Israelite]]
*[[Old Testament]]
*[[Tanakh]]
*[[Torah]]
*[[Timeline of Christianity]]
</td>
<td width="10%">
</td>
<td valign="top">
<center><b>Notable people</b><br>
[[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]], [[Benjamin]], [[Moses]], [[Aaron]], [[Joshua]]</center>

<table>
<tr>
<td valign="top"><center>
<b>Kings of Israel</b><br>
<i>Main: [[Kingdom_of_Israel#Royal_Houses_of_Israel|List of the Kings of Israel]]</i><br>
[[Saul the King|Saul]], [[Ish-bosheth]], [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Jeroboam]], [[Nadab of Israel|Nadab]], [[Baasha (king)|Baasha]], [[Elah]], [[Zimri]], [[Omri]], [[Ahab]] [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]], [[Jehoram of Israel|Jehoram]], [[Jehu]], [[Elisha]], [[Jehoahaz of Israel|Jehoahaz]], [[Jehoash of Israel|Jehoash]], [[Jeroboam II]], [[Zechariah of Israel|Zachariah]], [[Shallum of Israel|Shallum]], [[Menahem]], [[Pekahiah]], [[Pekah]], [[Hoshea]] </center>
</td>
<td valign="top"><center>
<b>Kings of Judah</b></br>
<i>Main: [[Kingdom_of_Judah#The_Kings_of_Judah|List of the Kings of Judah]]</i></br>
[[Rehoboam]], [[Abijam]], [[Asa of Judah|Asa]], [[Jehoshaphat]], [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]], [[Ahaziah of Judah|Ahaziah]], [[Athaliah]], [[Jehoash of Judah|Jehoash]], [[Amaziah of Judah|Amaziah]], [[Uzziah of Judah|Uzziah]], [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], [[Hezekiah]], [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]], [[Amon of Judah|Amon]], [[Josiah]], [[Jehoahaz of Judah|Jehoahaz]], [[Jehoiakim]], [[Jeconiah]], [[Zedekiah]] </center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*''[[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]]'', [[Max Weber]], Free Press, 1967, ISBN 0-02-934130-2
*David M. Rohl, Pharaohs and Kings, ISBN 0-609-80130-9
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia]

==External links==
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History] The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08344a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (Before A.D. 71)]
*[http://www.jnul.huji.ac.il/dl/maps/pal/html/ Holy Land Maps]
*[http://www.elahfortress.com/ Mivtsar Ha'Elah - The Elah Fortress] Follow the excavation at Kh. Qeiyafa
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Jewish history}}

[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible topics]]
[[Category:Samaritan culture and history]]

[[cs:Starověké dějiny Izraele]]
[[da:Oldtidens Israels og Judæas historie]]
[[es:Historia del Antiguo Israel]]
[[fr:Philistins (Bible)]]
[[he:ארץ ישראל בעת העתיקה]]
[[sw:Israeli ya Kale]]
[[fj:Na Veitarataravi ni Veigauna vaka i Isireli kei Jiuta]]
[[ja:古代イスラエル]]
[[no:Antikkens Israels og Judeas historie]]
[[pl:Starożytny Izrael]]
[[ru:История еврейского народа в Ветхом Завете]]
[[sh:Historija Drevnog Izraela i Judeje]]
[[fi:Israelin ja Juudan historia]]

Revision as of 13:25, 26 January 2009

It doesnt have one, its a made up place.

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