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{{About|the general history of Texas|recent history|Texas}}
{{Texas History}}

Spanish [[conquistadors]] (conquerors) first arrived in the region now known as [[Texas]] in 1519, finding the region populated by various [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes. During the period from 1519 to 1848, all or parts of Texas were claimed by six countries: [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Mexico]], the [[Republic of Texas]], the [[United States of America]]—as well as the [[Confederate States of America]] in 1861–65.

The first [[Europe]]an base was established in 1682, when [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]] established a French colony, [[French colonization of Texas|Fort Saint Louis]], near [[Matagorda Bay]]. The colony was killed off after three years, but its presence motivated Spanish authorities to begin activity. Several missions were established in [[East Texas]]; they were abandoned in 1691. Twenty years later, concerned with the French presence in neighboring [[Louisiana]], Spanish authorities again attempted to colonize Texas. Over the next 110 years, Spain established numerous villages, ''[[presidio]]s'', and missions in the province. A small number of Spanish settlers arrived, in addition to missionaries and soldiers. Spain signed agreements with colonizers from the United States. When Mexico won its [[Mexican War of Independence|independence from Spain in 1821]], [[Mexican Texas]] was part of the new nation. To encourage settlement, Mexican authorities allowed organized immigration from the United States, and by 1834, over 30,000&nbsp;Anglos lived in Texas,<ref name=manchaca201>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;201.</ref> compared to only 7,800&nbsp;Mexicans.<ref name=manchaca172>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;172.</ref>

After Santa Anna's dissolution of the [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Constitution of 1824]], issues such as lack of access to courts, the militarization of the region's government (e.g., response to Saltillo-Monclova problem) and self-defense issues resulting in the confrontation in Gonzales, public sentiment turned towards revolution. Santa Anna's invasion of the territory after his putting down the rebellion in [[Zacatecas]] provoked the conflict of 1836. The [[Texian Army|Texian forces]] fought and won the [[Texas Revolution]] in 1835–36. Texas now became an independent nation, the [[Republic of Texas]]. Attracted by the rich cotton lands and ranch lands, tens of thousands of immigrants arrived from the U.S. and from Germany as well. In 1845, Texas [[Texas Annexation|joined the United States]], becoming the 28th state. Texas declared its secession from the United States in 1861 to join the Confederate States of America. Only a few battles of the [[American Civil War]] were fought in Texas; most Texas regiments served in the east. When the war ended the slaves were freed and Texas was subject to [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], a process that left a residue of bitterness among whites and a second-class status for blacks in a [[Jim Crow]] system of segregation.

Cotton and ranching dominated the economy, with railroad construction after 1870 a major factor in the formation of new cities. Toward the end of the 19th century timber became an important industry in Texas as well. In 1901 a petroleum discovery at [[Spindletop|Spindletop Hill]], near Beaumont, created the most productive oil well the world had ever seen. The wave of oil speculation and discovery that followed came to be known as the "[[Texas Oil Boom|Oil Boom]]", permanently transforming and enriching the economy of Texas. Agriculture and ranching gave way to a service-oriented society after the boom years of World War II. Segregation ended in the 1960s. Politically, Texas changed from a virtually one-party Democratic state, to a highly contested political scene, until 2000 when it was solidly Republican. The economy of Texas has continued to grow rapidly, becoming the second largest state in population in 1994, and became economically highly diversified, with a growing base in high technology.

==Pre-Columbian history==
{{Further|Pre-Columbian Mexico}}
Texas lies at the juncture of two major cultural spheres of [[Pre-Columbian North America]], the [[Southwestern tribes|Southwestern]] and the [[Plains Indians|Plains]] areas. The area now covered by Texas comprised three major indigenous cultures which had reached their developmental peak prior to the arrival of European explorers and are known from archaeology. These are<ref name="Richardson">Richardson (2005), p.&nbsp;9.</ref>
*the [[Ancient Pueblo Peoples|Pueblo]] from the upper [[Rio Grande]] region, centered west of Texas;
*the [[Mound builder (people)|Mound Builder]] culture of the [[Mississippi Valley]] region, centered east of Texas, ancestral to the [[Caddo]] nation;
*the civilizations of [[Mesoamerica]], centered south of Texas. Influence of [[Teotihuacan]] in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.

The [[Paleo-Indians]] that lived in Texas between 9200 – 6000 BC may have links to [[Clovis culture|Clovis]] and [[Folsom tradition|Folsom]] cultures; these [[nomadic people]] hunted [[mammoth]]s and [[bison latifrons]]<ref name="Hester">{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bfp02|title=Prehistory| author= Thomas R. Hester, Ellen Sue Turner |work=The Handbook of Texas Online|author= Texas State Historical Association|date=August 22, 2008}}</ref> using [[atlatl]]s. They extracted [[Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument|Alibates flint]] from quarries in the [[Texas panhandle|panhandle]] region.

Beginning during the [[4th millennium BC]], the population of Texas increased despite experiencing a [[climate change|changing climate]] and the [[Holocene extinction event|extinction of giant mammals]]. Many [[pictogram]]s drawn on the walls of caves or on rocks are visible in the state, including at [[Hueco Tanks]]<ref name="Sutherland">{{Citation| last= Sutherland| first=Kay| title = Rock Paintings at Hueco Tanks State Historic Site| publisher = Texas Parks & Wildlife| year = 2006| id = PWD BK P4501-095E (6/06)| url = http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/pwdpubs/media/pwd_bk_p4501_0095e.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2009-01-26| postscript= .}}</ref> and Seminole Canyon.

Native Americans in East Texas began to [[Sedentism|settle]] in villages shortly after 500 BC, farming and building the first burial [[mound]]s. They were influenced by the [[Mound builder (people)|Mound Builder]] civilizations that lived in the Mississippi basin.<ref name="Hester"/> In the [[Trans-Pecos]] area, populations were influenced by [[Mogollon culture]].

From the 8th century, the bow and arrow appeared in the region,<ref name="Hester"/> manufacture of pottery developed and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] increasingly depended on [[bison]] for survival. Obsidian objects found in various Texan sites attest of trade with cultures in present day Mexico and the [[Rocky Mountains]].

No one culture was dominant in the present-day Texas region and many different peoples inhabited the area.<ref name="Richardson"/> [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]], [[Apache]], [[Atakapan]], [[Bidai]], [[Caddo]], [[Coahuiltecan]], [[Comanche]], [[Cherokee]], [[Choctaw]], [[Coushatta]], [[Hasinai]], [[Jumano]], [[Karankawa]], [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]], [[Kiowa]], [[Tonkawa]], and [[Wichita (tribe)|Wichita]].<ref>Richardson (2005), pp.&nbsp;10–6.</ref> The name '''''Texas''''' derives from ''{{unicode|táyshaʼ}}'', a word in the [[Caddoan languages|Caddoan language]] of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies."<ref name="HandbookOfTexasOnline">{{cite web
|last=Fry
|first=Phillip L
|title=Handbook of Texas Online, s.v.
|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/pft04
|accessdate=2007-07-24}}</ref><ref>Richardson, p.&nbsp;1.</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Texas Almanac
|url=http://www.texasalmanac.com/facts/
|accessdate=2007-07-24}}</ref><ref>Rupert N. Richardson, Adrian Anderson, Cary D. Wintz & Ernest Wallace, ''Texas: the Lone Star State'', 9th edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 0131835505, pp.&nbsp;10–16.</ref>

Native Americans determined the fate of European explorers and settlers depending on whether a tribe was kind or warlike.<ref>Richardson, p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunting methods for [[Game (food)|wild game]]. Warlike tribes made life unpleasant, difficult and dangerous for explorers and settlers through their attacks and resistance to European conquest.<ref>Richardson, pp.&nbsp;10, 16.</ref>

A remnant of the Choctaw tribe in East Texas still lives in the Mt. Tabor Community near Amberly, Texas. Currently, there are three federally-recognized Native American tribes which reside in Texas: the [[Alabama-Coushatta]] Tribes of Texas, the [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]] Traditional Tribe of Texas, and the [[Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo]] of Texas.

==Early European exploration==
The first European to see Texas was [[Alonso Álvarez de Pineda]], who led an expedition for the governor of [[Jamaica]], Francisco de Garay, in 1520. While searching for a passage between the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and Asia,<ref name="weber34">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;34.</ref> Álvarez de Pineda created the first map of the northern [[Gulf Coast]].<ref name="chipman243">Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;243.</ref> This map is the earliest recorded document of Texas history.<ref name="chipman243" />

Between 1528 and 1535, four survivors of the [[Narváez expedition]], including [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]] and [[Estevanico]], spent six and a half years in Texas as slaves and traders among various native groups. Cabeza de Vaca was the first European to explore the interior of Texas.

==French colonization of Texas: 1684–1689==
[[File:Île-de-France flag.svg|thumb|200px|right|The French flag of the [[Bourbons]]]]
{{Main|French colonization of Texas}}
Although Álvarez de Pineda had claimed the area that is now Texas for Spain, the area was essentially ignored for over 160 years. Its initial settlement by Europeans occurred by accident. In April 1682, French nobleman [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]] had claimed the entire [[Mississippi River]] Valley for France.<ref>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;72.</ref> The following year, he convinced King [[Louis XIV]] to establish a colony near the Mississippi, essentially splitting [[Spanish Florida]] from New Spain.<ref>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;73–4.</ref><ref name="weber149">Weber (1992), pp.&nbsp;148–9.</ref>

La Salle's colonization expedition left France on July 24, 1684 and soon lost one of its supply ships to Spanish [[privateers]].<ref name="chipman75">Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;75.</ref> A combination of inaccurate maps, La Salle's previous miscalculation of the latitude of the mouth of the Mississippi River, and overcorrecting for the Gulf currents led the ships to be unable to find the Mississippi.<ref name="chipman76">Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;76.</ref> Instead, they landed at [[Matagorda Bay]] in early 1685, {{convert|400|mi|km|0}} west of the Mississippi.<ref name="chipman76" /> In February, the colonists constructed Fort Saint Louis.<ref name="weber149" />

[[File:Cavelier de la salle.jpg|left|thumb|[[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]] founded the French colony in Texas.]]

After the fort was constructed, one of the ships returned to France, and the other two were soon destroyed in storms, stranding the settlers. La Salle and his men searched overland for the Mississippi River, traveling as far west as the [[Rio Grande]]<ref name="weber149" /> and as far east as the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity River]].<ref>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;83–4.</ref> Disease and hardship laid waste to the colony, and by early January 1687, fewer than 45&nbsp;people remained. That month, a third expedition launched a final attempt to find the Mississippi. The expedition experienced much infighting, and La Salle was ambushed and killed somewhere in [[East Texas]].<ref name="chipman84">Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;84.</ref>

The Spanish learned of the French colony in late 1685. Feeling that the French colony was a threat to Spanish mines and shipping routes, King [[Carlos II|Carlos II's]] Council of war recommended the removal of "this thorn which has been thrust into the heart of America. The greater the delay the greater the difficulty of attainment."<ref name="weber149" /> Having no idea where to find La Salle, the Spanish launched ten expeditions—both land and sea—over the next three years. The last expedition discovered a [[Jean Gery|French deserter]] living in Southern Texas with the [[Coahuiltecan]]s.<ref>Weber (1992), pp.&nbsp;151–152.</ref>

The Frenchman guided the Spanish to the French fort in late April 1689.<ref name="weber152">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;152.</ref> The fort and the five crude houses surrounding it were in ruins.<ref name="chipman83">Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;83.</ref> Several months before, the [[Karankawa]] had become angry that the French had taken their canoes without payment and had attacked the settlement<ref name="weber152" /> sparing only four children.<ref name="chipman84" />

==Spanish Texas: 1690–1821==
{{Main|Spanish Texas}}
[[File:Flag of New Spain.svg|thumb|200px|right|The Spanish flag of Burgundy.]]

===Establishment of Spanish colony===
News of the destruction of the French fort "created instant optimism and quickened religious fervor" in Mexico City.<ref name=chipman87>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;87.</ref> Spain had learned a great deal about the geography of Texas during the many expeditions in search of Fort Saint Louis.<ref name=weber151and152>Weber (1992), pp.&nbsp;151–2.</ref> In March 1690, [[Alonso De León]] led an expedition to establish a [[mission (Christian)|mission]] in East Texas.<ref name=chipman89>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;89.</ref> [[Mission San Francisco de la Espada|Mission San Francisco de los Tejas]] was completed near the [[Hasinai]] village of Nabedaches in late May, and its first [[Catholic mass|mass]] was conducted on June 1.<ref name=chipman89/><ref name="weber154">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;154.</ref> On January 23, 1691, Spain appointed the first governor of Texas, General [[Domingo Terán de los Ríos]].<ref>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;93–4.</ref> On his visit to Mission San Francisco in August, he discovered that the priests had established a second mission nearby, but were having little luck converting the natives to Christianity. The Indians regularly stole the mission cattle and horses and showed little respect to the priests.<ref name=chipman97>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;97.</ref> When Terán left Texas later that year, most of the missionaries chose to return with him, leaving only 3 religious people and 9 soldiers at the missions.<ref name=chipman98>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;98.</ref> The group also left behind a [[smallpox]] epidemic.<ref name="weber154" /> The angry Caddo threatened the remaining Spaniards, who soon abandoned the fledgling missions and returned to [[Coahuila]]. For the next 20&nbsp;years, Spain again ignored Texas.<ref name="weber155">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;155.</ref>

After a failed attempt to convince Spanish authorities to reestablish missions in Texas, in 1711 Franciscan missionary Francisco Hidalgo approached the French governor of [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]] for help.<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;159.</ref> The French governor sent representatives to meet with Hidalgo. This concerned Spanish authorities, who ordered the reoccupation of Texas as a buffer between New Spain and French settlements in Louisiana.<ref name="weber160">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;160.</ref> In 1716, four missions and a presidio were established in East Texas. Accompanying the soldiers were the first recorded female settlers in Spanish Texas.<ref name=chipman112>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;112.</ref>

The new missions were over {{convert|400|mi|km|0}} from the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista.<ref name=chipman113>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;113.</ref> [[Martín de Alarcón]], who had been appointed governor of Texas in late 1716, wished to establish a way station between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas.<ref name=weber163>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;163.</ref> Alarcón led a group of 72&nbsp;people, including 10&nbsp;families, into Texas in April 1718, where they settled along the [[San Antonio River]]. Within the next week, the settlers built mission [[Alamo Mission in San Antonio|San Antonio de Valero]] and a presidio, and chartered the municipality of San Antonio de Béxar, now [[San Antonio]], Texas.<ref name=chipman117>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;117.</ref>

The following year, the [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] pitted Spain against France, which immediately moved to take over Spanish interests in North America.<ref>Weber (1992), pp.&nbsp;165–6.</ref> In June 1719, 7&nbsp;Frenchmen from [[Natchitoches, LA|Natchitoches]] took control of the mission San Miguel de los Adaes from its sole defender, who did not know that the countries were at war. The French soldiers explained that 100 additional soldiers were coming, and the Spanish colonists, missionaries, and remaining soldiers fled to San Antonio.<ref>Weber (1992), pp.&nbsp;166–7.</ref>

[[File:Texas 1718.jpg|thumb|200px|Texas in 1718, [[Guillaume de L'Isle]] map, approximate state area highlighted, northern boundary was indefinite.]]

The new governor of Coahuila and Texas, the [[Marquis de San Miguel de Aguayo]], drove the French from Los Adaes without firing a shot. He then ordered the building of a new Spanish fort [[Los Adaes|Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Los Adaes]], located near present-day [[Robeline, Louisiana]], only {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Natchitoches. The new fort became the first capital of Texas, and was guarded by 6&nbsp;cannons and 100&nbsp;soldiers.<ref name=weber167>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;167.</ref> The six East Texas missions were reopened,<ref>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;123.</ref> and an additional mission and presidio were established at Matagorda Bay on the former site of Fort Saint Louis.<ref name=weber168>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;168.</ref><ref name=chipman126>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;126.</ref>

===Difficulties with the Indians===
In the late 1720s, the viceroy of New Spain closed the presidio in East Texas and reduced the size of the garrisons at the remaining presidios,<ref name=chipman129>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;129–30.</ref> leaving only 144&nbsp;soldiers in the entire province. With no soldiers to protect them, the East Texas missions relocated to San Antonio.<ref name=chipman131>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;131.</ref>
[[File:Spanish Missions in Texas.JPG|left|thumb|Spanish missions within the boundaries of what is now the state of Texas]]
Although the missionaries had been unable to convert the Hasinai tribe of East Texas, they did become friendly with the natives. The Hasinai were bitter enemies of the [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan Apache]], who transferred their enmity to Spain and began raiding San Antonio and other Spanish areas.<ref name=chipman133>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;133.</ref><ref name="weber188">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;188.</ref> A temporary peace was finally negotiated with the Apache in 1749,<ref name="weber193">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;193.</ref> and at the request of the Indians a mission was established along the [[San Saba River]] northwest of San Antonio.<ref>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;158, 159.</ref> The Apaches shunned the mission, but the fact that Spaniards now appeared to be friends of the Apache angered the Apache enemies, primarily the [[Comanche]], [[Tonkawa]], and Hasinai tribes, who promptly destroyed the mission.<ref name="weber189">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;189.</ref>

In 1762, France finally relinquished their claim to Texas by ceding all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain as part of the treaty to end the [[Seven Years War]].<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;198.</ref> Spain saw no need to continue to maintain settlements near French outposts and ordered the closure of Los Adaes, making San Antonio the new provincial capital.<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;211.</ref> The residents of Los Adaes were relocated in 1773. After several attempts to settle in other parts of the province, the residents returned to East Texas without authorization and founded [[Nacogdoches]].<ref name="weber222">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;222.</ref>

The Comanche agreed to a peace treaty in 1785.<ref>Weddle (1995), p.&nbsp;163.</ref> The Comanches were willing to fight the enemies of their new friends, and soon attacked the Karankawa. Over the next several years the Comanches killed many of the Karankawa in the area and drove the others into Mexico.<ref name="weddle164">Weddle (1995), p.&nbsp;164.</ref> In January 1790, the Comanche also helped the Spanish fight a large battle against the Mescalero and Lipan Apaches at Soledad Creek west of San Antonio. The Apaches were resoundingly defeated and the majority of the raids stopped.<ref name=chipman200>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;200.</ref> By the end of the 18th century only a small number of the remaining hunting and gathering tribes within Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, mission San Antonio de Valero was secularized, and the following year the four remaining missions at San Antonio were partially secularized.<ref name=chipman202>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;202.</ref>

===Encroachment===
In 1799, Spain gave Louisiana back to France in exchange for the promise of a throne in central Italy. Although the agreement was signed on October 1, 1800, it did not go into effect until 1802. The following year, [[Napoleon]] sold Louisiana to the United States. The original agreement between Spain and France had not explicitly specified the borders of Louisiana, and the descriptions in the documents were ambiguous and contradictory.<ref name="weber291">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;291.</ref> The United States insisted that its purchase also included most of [[West Florida]] and all of Texas.<ref name="weber291"/> [[Thomas Jefferson]] claimed that Louisiana stretched west to the [[Rocky Mountains]] and included the entire [[drainage basin|watershed]] of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their tributaries, and that the southern border was the Rio Grande. Spain maintained that Louisiana extended only as far as Natchitoches, and that it did not include the [[Illinois Territory]].<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;292.</ref> Texas was again considered a buffer province, this time between New Spain and the United States.<ref name="weber295">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;295.</ref> The disagreement would continue until the signing of the 1819 [[Adams–Onís Treaty]], at which point Spain gave Florida to the United States in return for undisputed control of Texas.<ref name="weber299">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;299.</ref>

During much of the dispute with the United States, governance of New Spain was in question. In 1808, Napoleon forced the Spanish king to abdicate the throne and appointed [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as the new monarch.<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;275.</ref> A shadow government operated out of [[Cadiz, Spain|Cadiz]] during Joseph's reign.<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;297.</ref> Revolutionaries within Mexico and the United States unsuccessfully combined to declare Texas and Mexico independent.<ref>Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;298.</ref> Spanish troops reacted harshly, looting the province and executing any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies. By 1820 fewer than 2000&nbsp;Hispanic citizens remained in Texas.<ref name="weber299"/> The situation did not normalize until 1821, when [[Agustin de Iturbide]] launched a drive for [[Mexican War of Independence|Mexican Independence]]. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired, ending the period of Spanish Texas.<ref name="weber300">Weber (1992), p.&nbsp;300.</ref>

===Spanish legacy===
[[File:Mission Concepcion San Antonio.JPG|thumb|left|Mission Concepcion is one of the San Antonio missions which is part of a [[National Historic Landmark]].]]
Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas, and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican influences on the future state. The most obvious legacy is that of the language; every major river in modern Texas, except the Red River, has a Spanish or Anglicized name, as do 42 of the [[List of Texas counties|state's 254 counties]]. Numerous towns also bear Spanish names.<ref name=chipman242>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;242.</ref> An additional obvious legacy is that of [[Roman Catholicism]]. At the end of Spain's reign over Texas, virtually all inhabitants practiced the Catholic religion, and it is still practiced in Texas by a large number of people.<ref name=chipman259>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;259.</ref> The Spanish missions built in San Antonio to convert Indians to Catholicism have been restored and are a [[National Historic Landmark]].<ref name=chipman255>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;255.</ref>

The Spanish introduced European livestock, including cattle, horses, and mules, to Texas as early as the 1690s.<ref name=chipman246>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;246.</ref> These herds grazed heavily on the native grasses, allowing [[mesquite]], which was native to the lower Texas coast, to spread inland. Spanish farmers also introduced tilling and irrigation to the land, further changing the landscape.<ref name=chipman247>Chipman (1992), p.&nbsp;247.</ref>

Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo-American legal system, but some Spanish legal practices were retained, including [[homestead exemption]], [[community property]], and [[adoption]].<ref name=chipman2534>Chipman (1992), pp.&nbsp;252–4.</ref>

==West Texas: Comancheria==
[[File:Comancheria.jpg|thumb|''Comancheria prior to 1850.'']]
Hämäläinen (2008) argues that from the 1750s to the 1850s, the [[Comanche]]s were the dominant group in the Southwest, and the domain they ruled was known as [[Comancheria]]. Hämäläinen calls it an empire. Confronted with Spanish, Mexican, and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico, Texas, and [[Coahuila]] and [[Nueva Vizcaya]] in northern Mexico, they worked to increase their own safety, prosperity and power. The population in 1810–1830 was 7000 to 8000.<ref>William R. Brown, Jr. "Comancheria Demography, 1805–1830," ''Panhandle-Plains Historical Review,'' Jan 1986, Vol. 59, pp1-17</ref> The Comanches used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from the Americans, Mexicans, and Indians through thievery, looting and killing, tribute, and kidnappings. There was much violence committed by and against Commanches, before and after the European settlement of Texas.<ref name="ReferenceA">S.C. Gwynne "Empire of the Summer Moon", Scribner, NY 2010</ref> Although they made a living partially through raiding and violence, along with hunting/gathering, especially buffalo hunting, the Comanche empire also supported a commercial network with long-distance trade. Dealing with subordinate Indians, the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region. In terms of governance, the Comanches were nearly-independent but allied bands with a loosely hierarchical social organization within bands.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Their empire collapsed when their camps and villages were repeatedly decimated by epidemics of smallpox and cholera in the late 1840s, and in bloody conflict with settlers, the Texas Rangers, and the U.S. Army. The population plunged from 20,000 to just a few thousand by the 1870s. The Comanches were no longer able to deal with the U.S. Army, which took over control of the region after the [[Mexican American War]] ended in 1848.<ref>Pekka Hämäläinen, ''The Comanche Empire'' (2008) p. 2</ref> The long-term imprint of the Commanches on the Indian and Hispanic culture has been demonstrated by scholars such as Gelo (2000)<ref>Daniel J. Gelo, "'Comanche land and ever has been': A native geography of the nineteenth-century Comancheria," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly,'' Jan 2000, Vol. 103 Issue 3, pp 273–307</ref> and Marez (2001).<ref>Curtis Marez, "Signifying Spain, Becoming Comanche, Making Mexicans: Indian Captivity and the History of Chicana/o Popular Performance" ''American Quarterly,'' June 2001, Vol. 53 Issue 2, pp 267–307</ref>

==Mexican Texas: 1821–1836==
{{Main|Mexican Texas}}
[[File:Stephen f austin.jpg|thumb|200px|Stephen F. Austin, the "Father of Texas."]]
In 1821, the [[Mexican War for Independence]] severed the control that Spain had exercised on its North American territories, and the new country of Mexico was formed from much of the lands that had comprised [[New Spain]], including [[Spanish Texas]].<ref>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;161.</ref> The [[1824 Constitution of Mexico]] joined Texas with [[Coahuila]] to form the state of [[Coahuila y Tejas]].<ref name=manchaca162>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;162.</ref> The Congress did allow Texas the option of forming its own state "'as soon as it feels capable of doing so.'"<ref name=vazquez51>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;51.</ref>

The same year, Mexico enacted the [[General Colonization Law]], which enabled all heads of household, regardless of race or immigrant status, to claim land in Mexico.<ref name=manchaca187>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;187.</ref> Mexico had neither manpower nor funds to protect settlers from near-constant Comanche raids and it hoped that settlers could control the raids. The government liberalized its immigration policies, allowing for settlers from the United States to immigrate to Texas.<ref name=manchaca164>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;164.</ref>

The first [[empresario|empresarial]] grant had been made under Spanish control to [[Moses Austin]]. The grant was passed to his son [[Stephen F. Austin]], whose settlers, known as the [[Old Three Hundred]], settled along the [[Brazos River]] in 1822.<ref name=manchaca198>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;198.</ref> The grant was later ratified by the Mexican government.<ref name=edmondson70>Edmondson (2000), p.&nbsp;70.</ref> Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority from the United States of America.<ref name=manchaca198/><ref>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;199.</ref>

Many (estimate of about 1 in 70 being the national average for 1860<ref>[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ajac/ Large Salveholders of 1860 (frm census data)]</ref>) of the Anglo-American settlers owned slaves. Texas was granted a one-year exemption from Mexico's 1829 edict outlawing slavery but Mexican president [[Anastasio Bustamante]] ordered that all slaves be freed in 1830.<ref name=edmondson80>Edmondson (2000), p.&nbsp;80.</ref><ref name=manchaca200>Manchaca (2001), p.&nbsp;200.</ref> To circumvent the law, the colonists converted their slaves into indentured servants for life;<ref name=barr15>Barr (1996), p.&nbsp;15.</ref> by 1836 there were 5,000&nbsp;slaves in Texas.<ref name=barr17>Barr (1996), p.&nbsp;17.</ref>

Bustamante outlawed the immigration of United States citizens to Texas in 1830.<ref name=manchaca200/> Several new [[presidio]]s were established in the region to monitor immigration and customs practices.<ref name=edmondson135>Edmondson (2000), p.&nbsp;135.</ref> The new laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties, angering both native Mexican citizens (''[[Tejano]]s'') and Anglos.<ref name=davis77>Davis (2006), p.&nbsp;77.</ref> In 1832, a group of men led a revolt against customs enforcement in [[Anahuac, TX|Anahauc]]. These [[Anahuac Disturbances]] coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the current president.<ref name=davis85>Davis (2006), p.&nbsp;85.</ref> [[Texan]]s sided with the [[federalism|federalists]] against the current government and after the [[Battle of Nacogdoches]], drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas.<ref name=davis86to89>Davis (2006), pp.&nbsp;86–9.</ref>

Texans took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom, resulting in the [[Convention of 1832]]. The convention which, among other issues, demand that U.S. citizens be allowed to immigrate, and requested independent statehood for Texas.<ref name=vazquez66>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;66.</ref><ref name=davis92>Davis (2006), p.&nbsp;92.</ref> The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the [[Convention of 1833]]. After presenting their petition, courier [[Stephen F. Austin]] was jailed for the next two years in [[Mexico City]] on suspicion of treason.<ref name=lack7>Lack (1992), p.&nbsp;7.</ref> Although Mexico implemented several measures to appease the colonists,<ref name=vazquez68>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;68.</ref> [[Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna]]'s measures to transform Mexico from a federalist to a centralist state provided an excuse for the Texan colonists to revolt.<ref name=vazquez71>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;71.</ref>

===Texas Revolution===
{{Main|Texas Revolution}}
The vague unrest erupted into armed conflict on October 2, 1835 at the [[Battle of Gonzales]], when [[Texan]]s repelled a Mexican attempt to retake a small cannon.<ref name=vazquez72>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;72.</ref><ref name="hardin12">Hardin (1994), p.&nbsp;12.</ref> This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next three months, the [[Texian Army|Texan forces]] successfully defeated all Mexican troops in the region.<ref name=barr64>Barr (1990), p.&nbsp;64.</ref>

On March 2, 1836, Texans signed the [[Texas Declaration of Independence]] at [[Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas|Washington-on-the-Brazos]], effectively creating the Republic of Texas. The revolt was justified as necessary to protect basic rights and because Mexico had annulled the federal pact. The colonists maintained that Mexico had invited them to move to the country and they were determined "to enjoy" the republican institutions to which they were accustomed in their native land, the United States of America.<ref name=vazquez74>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;74.</ref>

Many of the Texas settlers believed the war to be over and left the army after the initial string of victories.<ref name=hardin91>Hardin (1994), p.&nbsp;91.</ref> The remaining troops were largely recently arrived adventurers from the United States; according to historian Alwyn Barr, the large number of American volunteers "contributed to the Mexican view that Texan opposition stemmed from outside influences".<ref name=barr63>Barr (1990), p.&nbsp;63.</ref> The Mexican congress responded to this perceived threat by authorizing the execution of any foreigner found fighting in Texas; there would be no prisoners of war.<ref name=scott74>Scott (2000), p.&nbsp;74.</ref>

As early as October 27, Mexican president [[Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna]] had been preparing to quell the unrest in Texas.<ref name=hardin98>Hardin (1994), p.&nbsp;98.</ref> In early 1836 Santa Anna personally led a 6000-man force toward Texas.<ref name="hardin102">Hardin (1994), p.&nbsp;102.</ref> At the [[Rio Grande]], the Mexican troops separated; Santa Anna led the bulk of the troops to San Antonio de Bexar to besiege the [[Alamo Mission]] while General [[Jose de Urrea]] led the remaining troops up the coast of Texas.<ref name=hardin120and121>Hardin (1994), pp.&nbsp;120–1.</ref> Urrea's forces soon defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast, culminating in the [[Goliad Massacre]], where 300 Texian prisoners of war were executed.<ref name=Handbook>{{citation |last=Roell |first=Craig |title=''Battle of Coleto'' |url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qec01}}.</ref> After a [[Battle of the Alamo|thirteen-day siege]], Santa Anna's forces overwhelmed the nearly 200 Texians defending the Alamo. "Remember the Alamo!" became a battle cry of the Texas Revolution.

News of the defeats sparked the [[Runaway Scrape]], where much of the population of Texas and the Texas provisional government fled east, away from the approaching Mexican army.<ref name=todish68>Todish ''et al.'' (1998), p.&nbsp;68.</ref> Many settlers rejoined the army, now commanded by General [[Sam Houston]]. After several weeks of maneuvering, on April 21, 1836, the [[Texian Army]] attacked Santa Anna's forces near the present-day city of [[Houston]] at the [[Battle of San Jacinto]].<ref name=todish69>Todish ''et al.'' (1998), p.&nbsp;69.</ref> Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the [[Treaties of Velasco]], ending the war.<ref name="manchaca201"/><ref name=todish70>Todish ''et al.'' (1998), p.&nbsp;70.</ref><ref name=vazquez77>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;77.</ref>

==Republic of Texas: 1836–1845==
{{Main|Republic of Texas}}

[[File:Wpdms republic of texas-2008-19-11.svg|300px|thumb|right|The Republic of Texas. The present-day outlines of the U.S. states (white lines) are superimposed on the boundaries of 1836–1845.]]

The first [[Congress of the Republic of Texas]] convened in October 1836 at [[Columbia, Texas|Columbia]] (now [[West Columbia, Texas|West Columbia]]). [[Stephen Fuller Austin|Stephen F. Austin]], known as the [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|''Father of Texas'']], died December 27, 1836, after serving two months as [[Secretary of State]] for the new Republic. In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas ([[Washington-on-the-Brazos]], [[Harrisburg, Texas|Harrisburg]], [[Galveston, Texas|Galveston]], [[Velasco, Texas|Velasco]] and [[Columbia, Texas|Columbia]]) before [[President of the Republic of Texas|President]] [[Sam Houston]] moved the capital to [[Houston]] in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to the new town of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] by the next president, [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]].

Internal politics of the Republic were based on the conflict between two factions. The nationalist faction, led by [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans.

Although Texas governed itself, Mexico refused to recognize its independence.<ref name=vazquez76>Vazquez (1997), p.&nbsp;76.</ref> On March 5, 1842, a Mexican force of over 500 men, led by [[Ráfael Vásquez (Mexican general)|Ráfael Vásquez]], invaded Texas for the first time since the revolution. They soon headed back to the Rio Grande after briefly occupying San Antonio. 1,400 Mexican troops, led by the French mercenary general [[Adrian Woll]] launched a second attack and captured San Antonio on September 11, 1842. A Texas militia retaliated at the [[Salado Creek#Battle of Salado Creek|Battle of Salado Creek]]. However on September 18, this militia was defeated by Mexican soldiers and Texas Cherokee Indians during the [[Dawson Massacre]].<ref>[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qfd01 "Dawson Massacre". ''Handbook of Texas Online''.] Retrieved Sep.24, 2006.</ref> The Mexican army would later retreat from the city of San Antonio.

Mexico's attacks on Texas intensified the conflict between the political factions in an incident known as the [[Texas Archive War]] in 1842. To "protect" the Texas national archives, President Sam Houston ordered them out of Austin. Austin residents suspicious of the president's motives, because of Houston's disdain of the capital, forced the archives back to Texas at gunpoint. The Texas Congress admonished Houston for the incident, and the incident would solidify Austin as Texas's seat of government for the Republic and the future state.<ref name="archivewar">{{cite web |title = The Archives War |work = Texas Treasures- The Republic |publisher = The Texas State Library and Archives Commission |date = November 2, 2005 |url = http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/treasures/republic/archwar/archwar.html |accessdate = 2009-01-03}}</ref>

==Statehood, war, and expansion: 1845–1860==
{{Main|History of Texas (1845-1860)}}
[[File:Texas Capitol Flags.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[U.S. Flag|U.S.]] and [[Flag of Texas|Texas]] flags at the [[Texas State Capitol]].]]

On February 28, 1845, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed a bill that would authorize the United States to [[Texas Annexation|annex the Republic of Texas]] and on March 1 U.S. President [[John Tyler]] signed the bill. The legislation set the date for annexation for December 29 of the same year. On October 13 of the same year, a majority of voters in the Republic [of Texas] approved a proposed constitution that specifically endorsed slavery and the slave trade. This constitution was later accepted by the U.S. Congress, making [[Texas]] a [[U.S. state]] on the same day annexation took effect (therefore bypassing a territorial phase).

The Mexican government had long warned that annexation would mean war with the United States. When Texas joined the U.S., the Mexican government broke diplomatic relations with the United States. The United States now assumed the claims of Texas when it claimed all land north of the Rio Grande. In June 1845, President [[James K. Polk]] sent General [[Zachary Taylor]] to Texas, and by October, 3,500 Americans were on the [[Nueces River]], prepared to defend Texas from a Mexican invasion. On November 10, 1845,<ref>Smith (1919), p.&nbsp;xi.</ref> Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, into disputed territory that Mexicans claimed as their own. Mexico claimed the [[Nueces River]] — about {{convert|150|mi|km}} north of the [[Rio Grande]] — as its border with Texas. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 63-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. The Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 U.S. soldiers in what later became known as the [[Thornton Affair]]. Both nations declared war. In the ensuing [[Mexican-American War]], there were no more battles fought in Texas, but it became a major staging point for the American invasion of northern Mexico.

One of the primary motivations for annexation was the Texas government's huge debts. The United States agreed to assume many of these upon annexation. However, the former Republic never fully paid off its debt until the [[Compromise of 1850]]. In return for $10 million, a large portion of Texas-claimed territory, now parts of [[Colorado]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[New Mexico]], and [[Wyoming]], was ceded to the Federal government.

Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.<ref>{{Handbook of Texas|id=afc03|name=Cotton Culture}}</ref> German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of economic, social and political conditions in their states. In 1842, German nobles organized the ''[[Adelsverein]]'', banding together to buy land in central Texas to enable German settlement. The [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolutions of 1848]] acted as another catalyst for so many immigrants that they became known as the "[[Forty-Eighters]]." Many were educated artisans and businessmen. Germans continued to arrive in considerable numbers until 1890.<ref>[http://hostville.com/hoelscher/gertex.htm "German Immigration in Texas"], accessed April 27, 2008.</ref>

The first Czech immigrants started their journey to Texas on August 19, 1851 headed by Jozef Šilar. The rich farmland of Central Texas attracted the Czech immigrants. The counties of Austin, Fayette, Lavaca, and Washington had early Czech settlements. The Czech-American communities are characterized by a strong sense of community and social clubs were a dominant theme of Czech-American life in Texas. By 1865, the Czech population numbered 700 and climbed to over 60,000 Czech-Americans by 1940.<ref>Handbook of Texas Online Czechs accessed July 28, 2008.</ref>

With their investments in cotton cultivation, Texas planters imported enslaved blacks from the earliest years of settlement. They established cotton plantations mostly in the eastern part of the state, where labor was done by enslaved African Americans. The central area of the state had more subsistence farmers.

==Confederate Texas and Reconstruction: 1860–1876==
{{Main|Texas in the Civil War|History of Texas (1865-1899)}}

{{Image|Texas industries timeline.png|thumb|300px|left|Boom periods of the four major industries that built the early Texas economy}}

As part of the Cotton Kingdom, planters in parts of Texas depended on slave labor. In 1860 30% of the population of state total of 604,215 were enslaved.<ref>[http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/php/state.php Historical Census Browser, 1860 US Census, University of Virginia], accessed March 15, 2008.</ref> In the statewide election on the secession ordinance, Texans voted to secede from the Union by a vote of 46,129 to 14,697 (a 76% majority). The Secession Convention immediately organized a government, replacing [[Sam Houston]] when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. <!-- This is from "Historical Atlas of Texas", by A. Ray Stephens and William M. Holmes, ISBN 0-8061-2307-9 -->

Texas declared its secession from the United States on February 1, 1861, and joined the [[Confederate States of America]] on March 2, 1861. Texas was mainly a "supply state" for the Confederate forces until mid 1863, when the Union capture of the Mississippi River made large movements of men, horses or cattle impossible. Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war.

On August 1, 1862 Confederate troops killed 34 pro-Union [[German Texans]] in the "[[Nueces Massacre]]" of civilians. The last battle of the Civil War, the [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]], was fought in Texas on May 12, 1865. In which the 2nd Texas cavalry battalion U.S. (one of only two from the state) took part.

===Historiography===
During the 20th century, national historiographical trends influenced the scholarship on the Civil War in Texas. Beginning in the 1950s, historians focused on military campaigns in Texas and other areas of the Southwest, a region previously neglected. Since the 1970s, scholars have shifted their attention to South Texas and how its relations with Mexico and Mexican Americans affected both Confederate and Union Civil War military operations. Also since the 1970s, the "New Social History" has stimulated research in war-related social, economic, and political changes. This historiographical trend is related to a growing interest in local and regional history.<ref>Walter F. Bell, "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature," 'Southwestern Historical Quarterly; 2005 109(2): 204–232.</ref>

===Reconstruction, Democratic control and disfranchisement===
When the news arrived in Galveston, on June 19, 1865, of the Confederate collapse, the freed slaves rejoiced, creating the celebration of [[Juneteenth]]. The State had suffered little during the War but trade and finance was disrupted. Angry returning veterans seized state property and Texas went through a period of extensive violence and disorder. Most outrages took place in northern Texas and were committed by outlaws who had their headquarters in the [[Indian Territory]] and plundered and murdered without distinction of party. President Andrew Johnson appointed Union General A. J. Hamilton as provisional governor on June 17, 1865. Hamilton had been a prominent politician before the war. He granted amnesty to ex-Confederates if they promised to support the Union in the future, appointing some to office. On March 30, 1870, although Texas did not meet all the requirements, the [[United States Congress]] restored Texas to the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]].

Like other Southern states, by the late 1870s white Democrats regained control, often with a mix of intimidation and terrorism by [[paramilitary]] groups operating for the Democratic Party. They passed a [[Texas Constitution|new constitution]] in 1876 that segregated schools and established a [[poll tax]] to support them, but it was not originally required for voting.<ref>{{Handbook of Texas |id=CC/mhc |name=Constitution of 1876}}, accessed April 12, 2008.</ref> In 1901 the legislature passed a poll tax as a prerequisite for voter registration. Given the economic difficulties of the times, the poll tax caused participation by poor whites, African Americans and Mexican Americans to drop sharply. By the early 20th century, the Democratic Party in Texas started using a "[[white primary]]," which the state legislature authorized in 1923.<ref name="BarriersVoting">{{cite web |title=Historical Barriers to Voting |work=Texas Politics |publisher=[[University of Texas]] |url=http://texaspolitics.laits.utexas.edu/html/vce/0503.html |accessdate=2008-05-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080402060131/http://texaspolitics.laits.utexas.edu/html/vce/0503.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = April 2, 2008}}</ref> Since the Democratic Party dominated the state after 1900 for decades, the "white primary" provision reduced what little minority participation there was as the primaries were the true competitive contest. These provisions extended deep into the 20th century.<ref name="BarriersVoting"/>
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==19th century Post-Reconstruction==
{{Main|History of Texas (1865-1899)}}
The coming of the railroads in the 1880s ended the cattle drives and allowed ranchers to sell their cattle easily, and farmers move their cotton to market cheaply. They made Dallas and other cities the centers of commercial activity.<ref>S. G. Reed, ''A History of the Texas Railroads'' (1981)</ref>
[[File:Missouri-Kansas-Texas Advertisement 1881.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad --the "Katy"--was the first railroad to enter Texas from the north]]

Much of Texas politics of the remainder of the 19th century centered on land use. Guided by the federal [[Morill Act]], Texas sold public lands to gain funds to invest in higher education. In 1876, [[Texas A&M University|the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas]] opened, and seven years later the [[University of Texas at Austin]] began conducting classes.<ref name="handbook">{{citation |last = Dethloff |first = Henry C. |authorlink=Henry C. Dethloff |title = Texas A&M University |work = The Handbook of Texas|publisher=Texas State Historical Association |url = http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/kct08 |accessdate = 2007-03-22}}.</ref> New land use policies drafted during the administration of Governor [[John Ireland (politician)|John Ireland]] enabled individuals to accumulate land, leading to the formation of large cattle ranches. Many ranchers ran [[barbed wire]] around public lands, to protect their access to water and free grazing. This caused several [[range war]]s.<ref name=hendrickson112>Hendrickson, p. 112.</ref> Governor [[Lawrence Sullivan Ross]] guided the Texas Legislature to reform the land use policies.<ref>Benner (1983), p. 162.</ref>

The state continued to deal with racial tensions, and Ross had to personally intervene to resolve the [[Jaybird-Woodpecker War]]. Under [[Jim Hogg]], the state turned its attention toward corporations violating the state monopoly laws. In 1894, Texas filed a lawsuit against [[John D. Rockefeller|John D. Rockefeller's]] [[Standard Oil Company]] and its Texas subsidiary, the Waters-Pierce Oil Company of Missouri. Hogg and his attorney general argued that the companies were engaged in rebates, [[price fixing]], consolidation, and other tactics prohibited by the state's 1889 antitrust act. The investigation resulted in a number of indictments, including one for Rockefeller. Hogg requested that Rockefeller be [[extradition|extradited]] from [[New York]], but the New York governor refused, as Rockefeller had not fled from Texas. Rockefeller was never tried, but other employees of the company were found guilty.<ref name=hendrickson127>Hendrickson (1995), p. 127.</ref>

==Texas in prosperity, depression, and war==
[[Galveston]], the fourth-largest city in Texas and then the major port, was destroyed by a [[Galveston Hurricane of 1900|hurricane]] with {{convert|100|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} winds on September 8, 1900. The storm created a {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on}} [[storm surge]] when it hit the island, {{convert|6|-|9|ft|m|abbr=on}} higher than any previously recorded flood. Water covered the entire island, killing between 6,000 and 8,000&nbsp;people, destroying 3,500&nbsp;homes as well as the railroad causeway and wagon bridge that connected the island to the mainland.<ref>Munsart (1997), p.&nbsp;118.</ref> To help rebuild their city, citizens implemented a reformed government featuring a five-man [[city commission]]. Galveston was the first city to implement a city commission government, and its plan was adopted by 500 other small cities across the United States.<ref>Turner (1997), p.&nbsp;187.</ref>

In the aftermath of the Galveston disaster, action proceeded on building the [[Houston Ship Channel]] to create a more protected inland port. Houston quickly grew once the Channel was completed, and rapidly became the primary port in Texas. Railroads were constructed in a radial pattern to link Houston with other major cities such as Dallas-Fort Worth, San Antonio, and Austin.

By 1900 the Dallas population reached 38,000 as banking and insurance became major activities in the increasingly white-collar city, which was now the world's leading cotton center. Businessmen took control of civic affairs; with little municipal patronage, there was only a small role for the Democratic party to play (and no role for the predominantly black Republican party.) A dramatic sign of progress was the towering 190-foot steel-frame skyscraper—the fourteen-story Praetorian Building, built in 1909 to house the Praetorian insurance company. Dallas became the regional headquarters of the Federal Reserve in 1914, strengthening its dominance of Texas banking. The city reached 260,000 population in 1929 when the Great Depression hit Texas, causing a sharp drop in the prices of oil, cotton and cattle, and growth came to a standstill.
[[File:Dallas-Praetorian.jpg|thumb|260px|The Praetorian building in Dallas, completed 1909, was the tallest skyscraper in Texas]]
[[Anthony Francis Lucas|Anthony F. Lucas]], an experienced mining engineer drilled the first major oil well at [[Spindletop]], on the morning of January 10, 1901 the little hill south of [[Beaumont, Texas]]. The [[East Texas Oil Field]], discovered on October 5, 1930 is located in east central part of the state, and is the largest and most prolific [[oil reservoir]] in the [[contiguous]] United States. Other oil fields were later discovered in [[West Texas]] and under the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The resulting [[Texas Oil Boom]] permanently transformed the economy of Texas, and led to the first significant economic expansion after the Civil War.

The creation of the [[New Mexico Territory]] in 1850 fixed the boundary with the state of Texas at the [[Rio Grande]]. Between then and 1912, when [[New Mexico]] became a state, the course of the river shifted. In what became known as the [[Country Club Dispute]], a boundary dispute case was filed with the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in 1913. The court settled the matter in 1927 by determining where the river had flowed in 1850, largely in agreement with the claims of Texas.

The economy, which had experienced significant recovery since the Civil War, was dealt a double blow by [[Great Depression in the United States|the Great Depression]] and the [[Dust Bowl]]. After the Stock Market Crash of 1929, the economy suffered significant reversals and thousands of city workers became unemployed, many of whom depended on federal relief programs such as [[Federal Emergency Relief Administration|FERA]], [[Works Progress Administration|WPA]] and [[Civilian Conservation Corps|CCC]]. Farmers and ranchers were especially hard hit, as prices for cotton and livestock fell sharply. Beginning in 1934 and lasting until 1939, an ecological disaster of severe wind and drought caused an exodus from Texas and [[Arkansas]], the [[Oklahoma Panhandle]] region and the surrounding plains, in which over 500,000 Americans were homeless, hungry and jobless.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/fmc/interviews/gregory.htm First Measured Century: Interview: James Gregory<!--Bot-generated title-->].</ref> Thousands left the region forever to seek economic opportunities along the West Coast.

===World War II===
World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture.<ref>James Ward Lee, et al., eds. ''Texas Goes to War: 1941'' (1991); Louis Fairchild and Thomas L. Charlton, eds. ''They Called It the War Effort: Oral Histories from World War II Orange, Texas'' (1993) provides primary sources.</ref> Texas needed more farm workers. The [[Bracero Program]] brought in 117,000 Mexicans to work temporarily.<ref>Otey M. Scruggs, "Texas and the Bracero Program, 1942–1947," ''Pacific Historical Review'' (1963) 32#3 pp. 251–264 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4492180 in JSTOR]</ref>

Existing military bases in Texas were expanded and numerous new training bases were built: [[Texas World War II Army Airfields]], [[Brooke Army Medical Center]], [[Camp Mabry]], [[Corpus Christi Army Depot]], [[Fort Bliss]], [[Fort Hood]], [[Fort Sam Houston]], Ingleside Army Depot, [[Red River Army Depot]], especially for aviation training. The good flying weather made the state a favorite location for Air Force training bases. In the largest aviation training program in the world, 200,000 graduated from programs at 40 Texas airfields, including 45,000 pilots, 12,000 bombardiers, 12,000 navigators, and thousands of aerial gunners, photographers, and mechanics.<ref>Thomas E. Alexander, ''The Stars Were Big and Bright: The United States Army Air Forces and Texas during World War II'' (Austin: Eakin, 2000), 262 pp.</ref> Allison (1999) in a study of Majors Field, the Army Air Forces Basic Flying School, at Greenville during 1942–45, shows that the base—like most military bases in rural Texas—invigorated the local economy, but also changed the cultural climate of the conservative Christian town, especially around unprecedented freedom regarding alcohol, dating and dancing, and race relations.<ref>Fred H. Allison, "Patriotic Prosperity and Social Change in World War II: The Impact of Majors Field on Greenville, Texas," ''Sound Historian'' 1999 5(1): 37–51.</ref>
[[File:WomanFactory1940s.jpg|right|thumb|A factory worker in 1942. Fort Worth, Texas.]]

The [[Lone Star Army Ammunition Plant]] and the [[Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant]] were built as part of the WWII buildup. Hundreds of thousands of American (and some allied) soldiers, sailors and airmen trained in the state. All sectors of the economy boomed as the [[Homefront-United States-World War II|homefront prospered]].

During WWII, Texas became home to as many as 78,982 enemy prisoners, mainly Germans; that was 15% of the total POW's in the United States. There were fourteen prisoner of war camps in the state. The men in the camps were used to supplement the local farm labor lost to the war.<ref>Michael R. Waters, ''Lone Star Stalag: German Prisoners of War at Camp Hearne'' (2004).</ref><ref>''Handbook of Texas Online:'' German Prisoners of War, accessed July 28, 2008.</ref> Though contemporary War Department officials claimed that government attempts at denazification of the prisoners were highly successful, in reality Nazi influence upon prisons in individual camps was common for the duration of the POW program. Walker (2006) examines Nazi activities in Texas POW camps during 1943–45 to indicate the severity of this problem and the failure of the military authorities to eradicate it.<ref>Richard P. Walker, "The Swastika and the Lone Star: Nazi Activity in Texas POW Camps, ''Military History of the West'' 2006 36: 54–88.</ref>

A largely rural area, East Texas became more urban as workers were recruited for the oil, shipbuilding, and aircraft industries. East Texans made many contributions to the war effort, both at home and in the armed forces. High schools had patriotic programs as well, but so many teachers and older students left for the military or for defense jobs that budgets were cut, programs dropped and the curriculum had to be scaled down. Hospitals reported a shortage of supplies and medical personnel, as many doctors and most of the younger nurses joined the services.<ref>Ralph Wooster, "East Texas in World War II," ''East Texas Historical Journal'' 2007 45(2): 41–56.</ref>

One of the Army's largest hospitals, Harmon General Hospital opened in Longview in November 1942 with 157 hospital buildings and a capacity of 2,939 beds. The facility was designed for the treatment of soldiers with central nervous system syphilis, psychiatric disorders, tropical illnesses, and dermatological diseases. At the end of the war the facility became the campus of LeTourneau University.<ref>Ken Durham, "Harmon General Hospital." ''East Texas Historical Journal'' 2000 38(1): 35–42.</ref>

Baylor University, like most schools, was successful in the multiple missions of aiding national defense, recruiting soldiers, and keeping the institution operational while the war continued.<ref>Kevin M. Brady, "A University at War: The Impact of World War II on Baylor University," ''Military History Of the West'' 2006 36: 34–53.</ref> Texas Tech University likewise had many roles in the war; the most famous was the War Training Service Pre-Flight program during 1943–44. It prepared Air Force pilots for full-fledged military aviation training. The efforts of Clent Breedove and M. F. Dagley, private contractors for the Civilian Pilot Training Program at the university site since 1939, with Harold Humphries as chief pilot, brought an economic boost to Lubbock, and 3,750 cadets received classroom instruction and flying time.<ref>John W. McCullough, "Pre-Flights on the Tech Campus: Texas Tech'S World War II Pre-Flight Pilots (1943–1944)", ''West Texas Historical Association Yearbook'' 2007 83: 19–34.</ref> From February 1943 to January 1944 more than two thousand women completed training at the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps Branch Number One, Army Administration School, at Stephen F. Austin State Teacher's College in Nacogdoches.

Nowhere was the impact greater than in [[History of Houston|Houston]], which in 1940 was a city of 400,000 population dependent on shipping and oil. The war dramatically expanded the city's economic base, thanks to massive federal spending. Energetic entrepreneurs, most notably George Brown, James Elkins and James Abercrombie, landed hundreds of millions of dollars in federal wartime investment in technologically complex facilities. Houston oil companies moved from being mere refiners and became sophisticated producers of petrochemicals. Especially important were synthetic rubber and high octane fuel, which retained their importance after the war. The war moved the natural gas industry from a minor factor to a major energy source; Houston became a major hub when a local firm purchased the federally-financed Inch pipelines. Other major growth industries included steel, munitions, and shipbuilding. Tens of thousands of new migrants streamed in from rural areas, straining the city's housing supply and the city's ability to provide local transit and schools. For the first time high paying jobs went to large numbers of women, blacks and Mexican Americans. The city's African American community, emboldened by their newfound prosperity, became a hotbed of civil rights agitation; the Smith v. Allwright Supreme Court decision on voting rights was backed and funded by local blacks in this period.<ref>Paul Alejandro Levengood, "For the duration and beyond: World War II and the creation of modern Houston, Texas," Ph.D. dissertation, Rice University, 1999 , 460 pages; AAT 9928553.</ref>

Throughout East Texas black family growth and dissolution came more rapidly than in peacetime; blacks were more mobile as an adjustment to employment opportunities; and there was a more rapid shift to factory labor, higher economic returns, and a willingness of whites to tolerate the change in black economic status so long as the traditional "Jim Crow" social relations were maintained.<ref>Henry A, Bullock, "Some Readjustments of the Texas Negro Family to the Emergency of War," '' Social Science Quarterly'' 1970 50(4): 987–1011 (reprint of 1945 article).</ref>

==Texas modernizes: 1945–present==
===1960s===
{{See also|John F. Kennedy assassination}}
On Friday, November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30&nbsp;pm Central Standard Time (18:30 UTC) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] assassinated [[John F. Kennedy]], the thirty-fifth President of the United States.<ref name="warren147">Warren Commission, p.&nbsp;147.</ref> Oswald shot the president from the 6th floor of the [[Texas School Book Depository]]. The Texas Governor, [[John B. Connally]], was also critically injured but survived.<ref name="Warrenpage133">Warren Commission Hearings, p.&nbsp;133.</ref> The vice president, the Texan [[Lyndon Baines Johnson]], swore in as President on Air Force One in Dallas at [[Love Field Airport]].<ref>Transcript, Lawrence F. O'Brien Oral History Interview XIII, 9/10/86, by Michael L. Gillette, Internet Copy, LBJ Library. See: Page 23 at [http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/oralhistory.hom/OBrienL/OBRIEN13.PDF].</ref>

===Higher education===
During World War II the main universities gained a new national role. The wartime financing of university research, curricular change, campus trainee programs, and postwar veteran enrollments changed the tenor and allowed Texas schools to gain national stature.<ref>Matthew Tyler Penney, "Instruments of national purpose". World War II and Southern higher education: Four Texas universities as a case study," Ph.D. dissertation, Rice University, 2007, 254 pages; AAT 3257342.</ref>

From 1950 through the 1960s, Texas modernized and dramatically expanded its system of higher education. Under the leadership of Governor Connally, the state produced a long-range plan for higher education, a more rational distribution of resources, and a central state apparatus that managed state institutions with greater efficiency. Because of these changes, Texas universities received federal funds for research and development during the [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] administrations.<ref name="blanton">Blanton (2005).</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|History|North America|United States|Texas}}
{{main|Historical outline of Texas}}
* [[Comanche history]]
* [[Forts of Texas]]
* [[History of vice in Texas]]
* [[History of slavery in Texas]]
* [[History of Texas forests]]
* [[History of the Southern United States]]
* [[History of the Western United States]]
* [[LGBT rights in Texas]]
* [[Nueces massacre]]
* [[Texas divisionism]]
* [[Texas Historical Commission]]
* [[Texas Oil Boom]]
{{clear}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{citation|last=Barr|first=Alwyn|title=Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995|edition=2nd|publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]]|location=[[Norman, OK]]|year=1996|isbn=0-8061-2878-X|authorlink=Alwyn Barr}}
*{{citation|last=Barr|first=Alwyn|title=Texans in Revolt: the Battle for San Antonio, 1835|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin, TX|year=1990|isbn=0-292-77042-1|oclc=20354408}}
*{{citation|last=Benner|first=Judith Ann|title=Sul Ross, Soldier, Statesman, Educator
|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|year=1983|location=[[College Station, Texas|College Station]], [[Texas]]|isbn=0-89096-142-5}}
*{{citation|last=Brooks|first=Nathan Covington |title = A Complete History of the Mexican War: Its Causes, Conduct and Consequences: Comprising an Account of the Various Military and Naval Operations from Its Commencement to the Treaty of Peace |publisher = Grigg, Elliot & Co. |location = Philadelphia |year = 1849}}
*{{citation|last=Chipman|first=Donald E.|title=Spanish Texas, 1519–1821|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=[[Austin, TX]]|year=1992|isbn=0-292-77659-4}}
*{{citation|last=Davis|first=William C.|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{citation|last=Edmondson|first=J.R.|title=The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts|publisher=Republic of Texas Press|place=[[Plano, TX]]|isbn=1-55622-678-0|year=2000}}
*{{citation|last=Hardin|first=Stephen L.|title=Texian Iliad|location=Austin, TX|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1994|isbn=0-292-73086-1}}
*{{citation|last=Hendrickson|first=Kenneth E., Jr.|title=The Chief of Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr.|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|location=[[College Station, Texas]]|year=1995|isbn=0-89096-641-9}}
*{{citation|last=Huson|first=Hobart|title=Captain Phillip Dimmitt's Commandancy of Goliad, 1835–1836: An Episode of the Mexican Federalist War in Texas, Usually Referred to as the Texian Revolution|location=Austin, Texas|publisher=Von Boeckmann-Jones Co.|year=1974}}
*Jay, William. ''A Review of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War''. American Peace Society (Boston, 1853)
*{{citation|last=Lack|first=Paul D.|title=The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and Social History 1835–1836|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|year=1992|isbn=0-89096-497-1}}
*{{citation|last=Manchaca|first=Martha|title=Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans|series=The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|location=[[Austin, TX]]|year=2001|isbn=0-292-75253-9}}
*{{citation|last=Munsart|first=Craig A.|title=American History through Earth Science|year=1997|location=[[Englewood, CO]]|publisher=Teacher Ideas Press|isbn=1-56308-182-2}}
*{{Citation|last=Richardson|first=Rupert N.|coauthors=Adrian Anderson, Cary D. Wintz & [[Ernest Wallace]]|title=Texas: the Lone Star State|publisher=[[Prentice Hall]]|location=New Jersey|year=2005| edition = 9th|isbn=0-13-183550-5|page=9|authorlink= Rupert N. Richardson}}
*{{citation|last=Turner|first=Elizabeth Hayes|title=Women, Culture, and Community: Religion and Reform in Galveston, 1880–1920|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1997|isbn=0-19-508688-0}}
*{{citation|title=Myths, Misdeeds, and Misunderstandings: The Roots of Conflict in U.S.–Mexican Relations|editor-last=Rodriguez O.|editor-first=Jaime E.|editor2-last=Vincent|editor2-first=Kathryn|location=[[Wilmington, DE]]|year=1997|publisher=Scholarly Resources Inc.|isbn=0-8420-2662-2|contribution=The Colonization and Loss of Texas: A Mexican Perspective|last=Vazquez|first=Josefina Zoraida}}
*{{citation | last = Smith | first = Franklin | editor = Joseph E. Chance | title = The Mexican War Journal of Captain Franklin Smith | publisher = University Press of Mississippi| year = 1991 | location = Jackson, Mississippi}}
*{{citation|last=Todish|first=Timothy J.|last2=Todish|first2=Terry|last3=Spring|first3=Ted|title=Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution|publisher=Eakin Press|year=1998|location=Austin, TX|isbn=978-1-57168-152-2}}
*{{citation| title =The Warren Commission Report| volume = IV| series =Warren Commission Hearings| publisher =National Archives| isbn =0-312-08257-6| url =http://www.jfk-assassination.de/warren/index.php| author =report of President's Commission on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.| year =1992}}
* {{citation|last=Weber|first=David J.|title=The Spanish Frontier in North America|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|location=[[New Haven, CT]]|series=Yale Western Americana Series|year=1992|isbn=0-300-05198-0}}
* {{citation|last=Weddle|first=Robert S.|title=Changing Tides: Twilight and Dawn in the Spanish Sea, 1763–1803|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students Number 58|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|location=[[College Station, TX]]|year=1995|isbn=0-89096-661-3}}

==Further reading==
===Surveys===
* ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2010), thousands of articles by scholars; the most useful starting point [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/ online edition]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103945805 Randolph B. Campbell, ''Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State''] (Oxford University Press, 2003, 500 pages)
* De León, Arnoldo, Gregg Cantrell, Robert A. Calvert. '' The History of Texas'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/111431383?title=The%20History%20of%20Texas online edition]; short survey by scholars
* Garrison, George P. ''Texas: A Contest of Civilizations'' (1903) old textbook by scholar [http://books.google.com/books?id=9P9EAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:Texas+intitle:A+intitle:Contest+intitle:of+intitle:Civilizations&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0 online edition]
* Hendrickson Jr., Kenneth E. ''Chief Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/11199178?title=Chief%20Executives%20of%20Texas%3a%20From%20Stephen%20F.%20Austin%20to%20John%20B.%20Connally%2c%20Jr online edition]

===Geography and environment===
*Doughty, Robin W. "Settlement and Environmental Change in Texas, 1820–1900," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1986 89(4): 423–442
* Gould, Lewis L. ''Lady Bird Johnson and the Environment'' (1988)
* Guthrie, William Keith. "Flood alley: An environmental history of flooding in Texas," Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Kansas, 2006, 397 pages; AAT 3243474
* Gutmann, Myron P. and Christie G. Sample. "Land, Climate, and Settlement on the Texas Frontier," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1995 99(2): 136–172
* [[Paul Horgan|Horgan, Paul]], ''Great River, The Rio Grande in North American History,'' (1977), ISBN 0-03-029305-7
* Meinig, D. W. ''Imperial Texas: An Interpretive Essay in Cultural Geography,'' University of Texas Press, 1969, 145 pages.
* Platt, Harold L. ''City Building in the New South: The Growth of Public Services in Houston, Texas, 1830–1910'' (1983) covers waste removal, sewage and clean water
* Pratt, Joseph A. "Growth or a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region," ''Business History Review'' 1978 52(1): 1–29 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3113226 in JSTOR]
* Schmidly David J. ''Texas Natural History: A Century of Change'' (2002) 534 pp.
* Stephens, A. Ray. ''Texas: A Historical Atlas'' (U. of Oklahoma Press, 2010) 432pp; ISBN 978-0-8061-3873-2
* Steely, James Wright. ''Parks for Texas: Enduring Landscapes of the New Deal'' (1999) 274 pp.
* [[Walter Prescott Webb|Webb, Walter Prescott]]. ''More Water for Texas'' (1954)
* [[Walter Prescott Webb|Webb, Walter Prescott]]. ''The Great Plains: A Study in Institutions and Environment'' (1931)

===

===Historiography===
* Bell, Walter F. "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 2005 109(2): 204–232
* Crouch, Barry A. "'Unmanacling' Texas Reconstruction: A Twenty-Year Perspective," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1990 93(3): 275–302
* Cummins, Light Townsend, and Alvin R. Bailey Jr. eds ''A Guide to the History of Texas'' (1988) [http://www.questia.com/read/71910759?title=A%20Guide%20to%20the%20History%20of%20Texas online edition]
* Deleón, Arnoldo. "Whither Tejano History: Origins, Development, and Status," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 2003 106(3): 348–364
* Hinojosa, Gilberto M. "The Enduring Hispanic Faith Communities: Spanish and Texas Church Historiography," ''Journal Of Texas Catholic History and Culture'' 1990 1(1): 20–41
* Poyo, Gerald E. and Gilberto M. Hinojosa. "Spanish Texas and Borderlands Historiography in Transition: Implications for United States History," ''Journal of American History'' 1988 75(2): 393–416 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887864 in JSTOR]
* Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1969 72(4): 435–448
* Wooster, Ralph A. and Robert A. Calvert, eds. ''Texas Vistas'' (1987) reprinted scholarly essays

===Arts and culture===
* Storey, John W., and Mary L. Kelley, eds. ''Twentieth Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (2008)

===Pre–1865===
* Bell, Walter F., “Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature,” ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly,'' 109 (Oct. 2005), 205–32.
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''An Empire for Slavery: The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865'' (1989).
* Campbell, Randolph B., and Richard G. Lowe. ''Wealth and Power in Antebellum Texas'' (1977).
* Carroll, Mark M. ''Homesteads Ungovernable: Families, Sex, Race, and the Law in Frontier Texas, 1823–1860'' (2001).
* Chipman, Donald E. ''Spanish Texas, 1519–1821'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/91935725?title=Spanish%20Texas%2c%201519-1821 online edition]
* De Leon, Arnoldo. ''The Tejano Community, 1836–1900'' (1982).
* Grear, Charles David. ''Why Texans Fought in the Civil War'' (2010) 239 pages; shows how kinship ties elsewhere in the South spurred many Texans to fight for the Confederacy.
* Howell, Kenneth W., ed. ''The Seventh Star of the Confederacy: Texas during the Civil War''. (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2009). 348 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 978-1-57441-259-8 essays by scholars
* Jewett; Clayton E. ''Texas in the Confederacy: An Experiment in Nation Building'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/110161832?title=Texas%20in%20the%20Confederacy%3a%20%20An%20Experiment%20in%20Nation%20Building online edition]
* [[Terry G. Jordan-Bychkov|Jordan, Terry G.]] ''German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth Century Texas'' (1966).
* Pace, Robert F., and Donald S. Frazier. ''Frontier Texas: History of a Borderland to 1880'' (Abilene: State House Press, 2004) 272pp. ISBN 1-880510-83-9
* Poyo, Gerald E., ed. ''Tejano Journey, 1770–1850'' (1996).
* Silverthorne, Elizabeth. ''Plantation Life in Texas'' (1986).
* Wooster, Ralph. ''Texas and Texans in the Civil War'' (1996) 308pp

===1865–1920===
* Barr, Alwyn. ''Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876–1906'' (1971)
* Buenger, Walter L. ''The Path to a Modern South: Northeast Texas between Reconstruction and the Great Depression'' (2001)
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Grass-Roots Reconstruction in Texas, 1865–1880'' (1997).
* Crouch, Barry A. ''The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans.'' (1992).
* Crouch, Barry A. "'Unmanacling' Texas Reconstruction: A Twenty-Year Perspective," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1990 93(3): 275–302
* Gould, Lewis N. ''Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era'' (1973).
* [[Terry G. Jordan-Bychkov|Jordan, Terry G.]] ''Trails to Texas: Southern Roots of Western Cattle Ranching'' (1981).
* McArthur, Judith N. ''Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918.'' (1998).
* Martin, Roscoe C. ''The People's Party in Texas: A Study in Third Party Politics'' (1933).
* Moneyhon, Carl H. ''Edmund J. Davis of Texas: Civil War General, Republican Leader, Reconstruction Governor'' (Texas Christian University Press, 2010) 337 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 978-0-87565-405-8
* Pitre, Merline. ''Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900'' Eakin Press, 1985.
* Ramsdell, Charles William. ''Reconstruction in Texas'' (1910). [http://books.google.com/books?id=cvRYAAAAMAAJ&dq=intitle:Reconstruction+intitle:in+intitle:Texas&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0 full text online]
* Rice, Lawrence D. ''The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900'' (1971)
* Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems," ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 1969 72(4): 435–448
* Spratt, John Stricklin. ''The Road to Spindletop: Economic Change in Texas, 1875–1901.'' (1955).
* Utley, Robert M. ''Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/read/106430028?title=Lone%20Star%20Justice%3a%20%20The%20First%20Century%20of%20the%20Texas%20Rangers online edition]
* Wooster, Ralph. ''Texas and Texans in the Great War'' (2010) 256pp
* Work, David, “United States Colored Troops in Texas during Reconstruction, 1865–1867,” ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly,'' 109 (Jan. 2006), 337–57.

===1920–present===
* Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. ''Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929–1939. '' Texas A&M University Press, 1984.
* Brown, Norman D. ''Hood, Bonnet, and Little Brown Jug: Texas Politics, 1921–1928'' (1984).
* Caro, Robert A. ''The Path to Power (The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Volume 1)'' (1990); ''Means of Ascent (The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Volume 2)'' (1991)
* Cox, Patrick. ''Ralph W. Yarborough, The People's Senator.'' (2001).
* Cunningham, Sean P. ''Cowboy Conservatism: Texas and the Rise of the Modern Right.'' (2010).
* Dallek, Robert. ''Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960''. (1991).
* Davidson, Chandler.'' Race and Class in Texas Politics.'' (1990).
* Foley, Neil. ''The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture'' University of California Press, 1997.
* Green, George Norris. ''The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1938–1957'' (1979).
* Knaggs, John R. ''Two-Party Texas: The John Tower Era, 1961–1984'' Eakin Press, 1986.
* Lee, James Ward, et al., eds. ''1941: Texas Goes to War.'' University of North Texas Press, 1991.
* Miller, Char. Deep in the Heart of San Antonio: Land and Life in South Texas'' Trinity University Press 2004.
* Olien, Diana Davids, and Roger M. Olien. ''Oil in Texas: The Gusher Age, 1895–1945'' (2002)
* Patenaude, Lionel V. ''Texans, Politics, and the New Deal'' (1983).
* Perryman, M. Ray. ''Survive and Conquer, Texas in the '80s: Power—Money—Tragedy ... Hope!'' Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1990.
* Reston, James. ''The Lone Star: The Life of John Connally'' (1989)
* Volanto, Keith J. Texas, ''Cotton, and the New Deal'' (2005).
* Whisenhunt, Donald W. ''The Depression in Texas: The Hoover Years'' Garland Publishing, 1983.
* Wooster, Ralph. ''Texas and Texans in World War II'' (2005) 296pp

==External links==
* [http://www.thc.state.tx.us/ Texas Historical Commission]
* [http://www.tshaonline.org/ Texas State Historical Association]
* [http://www.thestoryoftexas.com/ The Texas State History Museum]
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/54421/texas-untamed-wild-at-heart#index/0 Texas Untamed: Wild at Heart] – slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [http://www.cah.utexas.edu/texashistory/annex/ Focus on Texas History: Colonization through Annexation (online collection of primary documents from Center of American History at the University of Texas at Austin)]
* [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ The Portal to Texas History]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71910759 Alvin R. Bailey Jr. and Light Townsend Cummins, eds. ''A Guide to the History of Texas.'' Greenwood Press. 1988.]
* [http://texasheritagesociety.org/ Texas Heritage Society]
*[http://www.txindependence.org Texas Independence Website]
*[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook Handbook of Texas Online]

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