History of Somalia: Difference between revisions
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Ancient Somalis domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BC from where it spread to Ancient Egypt and [[North Africa]].<ref>Near Eastern archaeology: a reader – By Suzanne Richard pg 120</ref> In the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], the city states of [[Mosylon]], [[Opone]], [[Malao (ancient)|Malao]], [[Sarapion]], [[Zeila|Mundus]], and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative [[Trade route|trade network]] connecting with merchants from [[Phoenicia]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemic Egypt]], Greece, [[Parthian Empire|Parthian Persia]], [[Sheba]], [[Nabataeans|Nabataea]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the ''[[beden]]'' to transport their cargo. After the [[Arabia Petraea|Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire]] and the Roman naval presence at [[Aden]] to curb [[piracy]], [[Arab people|Arab]] merchants barred Indian merchants from trading in the free port cities of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] because of the nearby Roman presence. However, they continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from any Roman threat or spies. The reason for barring Indian ships from entering the wealthy Arabian port cities was to protect and hide the exploitative trade practices of the Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient [[Red Sea]]-[[Mediterranean Sea]] commerce. The Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of [[cinnamon]] from Ceylon and the [[Far East]] to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been one of the most remarkable secrets of the Red Sea port cities of Arabia and the Horn of Africa in their trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] world.<ref>pg 258 - The commerce between the Roman Empire and India By Eric Herbert Warmington</ref> The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<ref>pg 28 - Foreign trade and economic development in Africa: a historical perspective By Solomon Daniel Neumark</ref><ref>pg 186 - The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</ref><ref>pg 217 - The Periplus of the Erythræan sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean - Wilfred Harvey Schoff</ref> Through Somali and Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the [[Near East]] and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue maker, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands the large quantities were shipped across the ancient sea and land routes.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} |
Ancient Somalis domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BC from where it spread to Ancient Egypt and [[North Africa]].<ref>Near Eastern archaeology: a reader – By Suzanne Richard pg 120</ref> In the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], the city states of [[Mosylon]], [[Opone]], [[Malao (ancient)|Malao]], [[Sarapion]], [[Zeila|Mundus]], and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative [[Trade route|trade network]] connecting with merchants from [[Phoenicia]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemic Egypt]], Greece, [[Parthian Empire|Parthian Persia]], [[Sheba]], [[Nabataeans|Nabataea]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the ''[[beden]]'' to transport their cargo. After the [[Arabia Petraea|Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire]] and the Roman naval presence at [[Aden]] to curb [[piracy]], [[Arab people|Arab]] merchants barred Indian merchants from trading in the free port cities of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] because of the nearby Roman presence. However, they continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from any Roman threat or spies. The reason for barring Indian ships from entering the wealthy Arabian port cities was to protect and hide the exploitative trade practices of the Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient [[Red Sea]]-[[Mediterranean Sea]] commerce. The Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of [[cinnamon]] from Ceylon and the [[Far East]] to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been one of the most remarkable secrets of the Red Sea port cities of Arabia and the Horn of Africa in their trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] world.<ref>pg 258 - The commerce between the Roman Empire and India By Eric Herbert Warmington</ref> The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<ref>pg 28 - Foreign trade and economic development in Africa: a historical perspective By Solomon Daniel Neumark</ref><ref>pg 186 - The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</ref><ref>pg 217 - The Periplus of the Erythræan sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean - Wilfred Harvey Schoff</ref> Through Somali and Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the [[Near East]] and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue maker, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands the large quantities were shipped across the ancient sea and land routes.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} |
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<big><big>YOUVE BEEN PUNK'D/big><big>Big text</big></big> |
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==Medieval== |
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{{main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuuraan state|Warsangali Sultanate}} |
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[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]] in [[Zeila]], Somalia.]] |
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The [[history of Islam]] in the Horn of Africa is as old as the religion itself.<ref>Ziauddin Sardar, Merryl Wyn Davies, ''The no-nonsense guide to Islam'', pg 73</ref> The early persecuted [[Muslim]]s fled to the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axumite]] port city of [[Zeila]] in present-day Somalia to seek protection from the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] at the [[Migration to Abyssinia|court of the Axumite Emperor]] in modern Ethiopia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have settled in several parts of the Horn of Africa to promote the religion.<ref>Ivan Hrbek, ''Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century''. pg 45</ref> The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on Somalia's merchants and sailors, as their Arab trading partners had now all adopted [[Islam]] and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea now became part of a trade network known as [[Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|Pax Islamica]]. Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities of Somalia. Instability in the Arabian Peninsula saw several migrations of Arab families to Somalia's coastal cities, who then contributed another significant element to the growing popularity of Islam in the Somali peninsula.<ref>pg 53 - Politics, language, and thought: the Somali experience By David D. Laitin</ref> |
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[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]]]] |
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For many years, [[Mogadishu]] stood as the pre-eminent city in the ''بلاد البربر Bilad-ul-Barbar'' ("Land of the [[Berber people|Berbers]]"), which was the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of Africa. This may be linked to the fact that the [[Somali people|Somalis]] are the ancestors of the Berbers that inhabited the [[Maghreb]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ''The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama'', (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.</ref><ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.</ref><ref>George Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides, ''The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"'', (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.</ref> |
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The [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] became the center of Islam on the [[East Africa]]n coast, and Somali merchants established a colony in [[Mozambique]] to extract gold from the [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Monomopatan mines]] in [[Sofala]].<ref>pg 4 - The quest for an African Eldorado: Sofala, By Terry H. Elkiss</ref> In northern Somalia, [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] was in its early stages a small trading community established by the newly-converted Horn of Africa Muslim merchants, who were predominantly Somali according to Arab and [[Somalian literature|Somali chronicles]]. The century between 1150 and 1250 marked a decisive turn in the role of Islam in Somali history. Following his visit to the city, the 12th century Syrian historian [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] wrote that Mogadishu was inhabited by dark-skinned Berbers, the ancestors of the modern Somalis.<ref>Roland Anthony Oliver, J. D. Fage, ''Journal of African history, Volume 7'', (Cambridge University Press.: 1966), p.30</ref><ref>I.M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.20</ref> The Adal Sultanate was now a center of a commercial empire stretching from [[Cape Guardafui]] to [[Hadiya Kingdom|Hadiya]]. The Adalites then came under the influence of the expanding Horn African [[Ifat Sultanate|Kingdom of Ifat]], and prospered under its patronage. The capital of the Ifat was Zeila, situated in northern present-day Somalia, from where the Ifat army marched to conquer the ancient [[Shewa|Kingdom of Shoa]] in 1270. |
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[[File:Mogadishan currency.JPG|thumb|[[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan currency]] - The [[Mogadishu|Kingdom of Mogadishu]] was an important monetary supporter of [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]].]] |
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The Muslim and [[Christian]] communities of modern Somalia and Ethiopia enjoyed friendly relations for centuries. The conquest of Shoa ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the [[Solomonic dynasty|Christian Solomonids]] and the Muslim Ifatites which resulted in several devastating wars and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat. Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonids in medieval times, especially during the reign of [[Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia|Amda Seyon I]] (r. 1314-1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor [[Dawit I of Ethiopia|Dawit I]] or Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq I]], respectively) measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Emperor eventually captured King [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] of the [[Walashma dynasty]] in Zeila and had him executed. The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Sa'ad ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the [[Imams of Yemen|King of Yemen]], where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids. |
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[[File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg|thumb|left|Almnara Tower, [[Somalia]].]] |
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The oldest son [[Sabr ad-Din II]] build a new capital eastwards of Zeila known as [[Dakkar]] and began referring to himself as the King of Adal. He continued the war against the [[Ethiopian Empire|Solomonic Empire]]. Despite his army's smaller size, he was able to defeat the Solomonids at the battles of Serjan and Zikr Amhara and consequently pillaged the surrounding areas. Many similar battles were fought between the Adalites and the Solomonids with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat but ultimately [[Sultan]] Sabr ad-Din II successfully managed to drive the Solomonic army out of Adal territory. He died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]] who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Dawit II]] to Yedaya where according to [[al-Maqrizi]], Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. |
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Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family [[Jamal ad-Din II]]. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bale]], Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq was forced to withdraw towards the [[Blue Nile]] over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued. |
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[[File:Ahmed Gurey Mogadishu Monument.jpg|thumb|[[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]] monument in [[Mogadishu]].]] |
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After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However Jamal upon hearing of Yeshaq's plan to sent several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal, including the capital returned to Adal where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and according to al-Maqrizi this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din]]. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He recovered the [[Bale Zone|Kingdom of Bali]] and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Kingdom of Mogadishu.<ref>pg 155 - The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 4 By Richard Gray</ref> These ambitious plans however were thrown out the war chamber when King Badlay died during the invasion of Dawaro. He was succeeded by his son [[Muhammad ibn Badlay]] who sent envoys to the Sultan of [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]] to gather support and arms in the continuing war against the Christian empire. The Adalite ruler Muhammad and the Solomonic ruler [[Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia|Baeda Maryam]] agreed to a truce and both states in the following decades saw an unprecedented period of peace and stability. |
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==Early modern== |
==Early modern== |
Revision as of 13:56, 8 February 2012
History of Somalia |
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Somalia ([Soomaaliya] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help); Arabic: الصومال aṣ-Ṣūmāl), officially the Republic of Somalia ([Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help), Arabic: جمهورية الصومال Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya on its southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen on its north, the Indian Ocean at its east, and Ethiopia to the west.
Prehistory
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/LaasGeel.jpg)
Somalia has been inhabited since the Palaeolithic period. Cave paintings said to date back as far as 9000 BC have been found in the northern part of the country.[1] The most famous of these is the Laas Gaal complex, which contains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent. Inscriptions have been found beneath each of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.[2] During the Stone Age, the Doian culture and the Hargeisan culture flourished here with their respective industries and factories.[3]
The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC.[4] The stone implements from the Jalelo site in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West.[5]
Ancient
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/300px-Silk_route.jpg)
Ancient pyramidical structures, tombs, ruined cities and stone walls such as the Wargaade Wall found in Somalia are evidence of an ancient sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.[6] The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this ancient civilization had had an ancient writing system that remains undeciphered[7] and enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with Ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since at least the second millennium BC, which supports the view of Somalia being the ancient Kingdom of Punt. The Puntites "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins."[8] According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati.[9]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Herodotus_world_map-en.svg/300px-Herodotus_world_map-en.svg.png)
Herodotus spoke of the Macrobians, an ancient people and kingdom postulated to have been located on the Somali peninsula[10][11] during the first millennium BC. They are mentioned as being a nation of people that had mastered longevity with the average Macrobian living till the age of 120. They were said to be the "Tallest and Handsomest of all men".[12] The Persian Emperor Cambyses II upon conquering Ancient Egypt sent ambassadors to Macrobia bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission, but instead the Macrobian ruler replied with a challenge for the Persian ruler in the form of an unstrung bow, that if the Persians could manage to string, they would have the right to invade his country, but until then they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.[12]
Ancient Somalis domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BC from where it spread to Ancient Egypt and North Africa.[13] In the classical period, the city states of Mosylon, Opone, Malao, Sarapion, Mundus, and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative trade network connecting with merchants from Phoenicia, Ptolemic Egypt, Greece, Parthian Persia, Sheba, Nabataea and the Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo. After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab merchants barred Indian merchants from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian Peninsula because of the nearby Roman presence. However, they continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from any Roman threat or spies. The reason for barring Indian ships from entering the wealthy Arabian port cities was to protect and hide the exploitative trade practices of the Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient Red Sea-Mediterranean Sea commerce. The Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of cinnamon from Ceylon and the Far East to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been one of the most remarkable secrets of the Red Sea port cities of Arabia and the Horn of Africa in their trade with the Roman and Greek world.[14] The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.[15][16][17] Through Somali and Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the Near East and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue maker, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands the large quantities were shipped across the ancient sea and land routes.[citation needed]
YOUVE BEEN PUNK'D/big>Big text
Early modern
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Eyl_Castle.jpg/220px-Eyl_Castle.jpg)
Sultan Muhammad was succeeded by his son Shams ad Din while Emperor Baeda Maryam was succeeded by his son Eskender. During this time period warfare broke out again between the two states and Emperor Eskender invaded Dakkar where he was stopped by a large Adalite army who destroyed the Solomonic army to such an extent that no further expeditions were carried out for the remaining of Eskender's reign. Adal however continued to raid the Christian empire unabated under the General Mahfuz, the leader of the Adalite war machine who annually invaded the Christian territories. Eskender was succeeded by Emperor Na'od who tried to defend the Christians from General Mahfuz but he too was also killed in battle by the Adalite army in Ifat.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg/220px-Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg)
At the turn of the 16th century Adal regrouped and around 1527 under the charismatic leadership of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Gurey in Somali, Gragn in Amharic, both meaning "left-handed"), Adal invaded Ethiopia. Adalite armies with Ottoman support and arms marched into Ethiopia and caused considerable damage on the highland state. Many historic churches, manuscripts and settlements were looted and burned during the campaigns.[19] Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as Tigray. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by Cristóvão da Gama, son of the famed navigator Vasco da Gama.[20] The Portuguese had been in the area earlier in early 16th centuries (in search of the legendary priest-king Prester John), and although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. A Portuguese fleet under the command of Estêvão da Gama was sent from India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims, and in July following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command of Christovão da Gama, younger brother of Estêvão, marched into the interior, and being joined by Ethiopian troops they were at first successful against the Muslims but they were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Wofla (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the Battle of Wayna Daga, in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew Nur ibn Mujahid, in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Barawa.jpg/220px-Barawa.jpg)
During the age of the Ajuuraans, the sultanates and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venetia,[21] Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[22] In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbaso also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.[23]
Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria[24]), together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.[25] Jewish merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood,[26] Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century[27] with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.[28] Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Dynasty of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa[29] and influenced the Chinese language with the Somali language in the process. Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate, seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.[30]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Medieval_Mombasa.jpg/220px-Medieval_Mombasa.jpg)
The 16th century Somali-Portuguese wars in East Africa meant that geopolitical tensions would remain high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman corsairs worried the Portuguese who sent a punitive expedition against Mogadishu under Joao de Sepuvelda, which was unsuccessful.[32] Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuuraan clients of the Somali coastal cities began to symphatize with the Arabs and Swahilis under Portuguese rule and sent an envoy to the Turkish corsair Mir Ali Bey for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in Southeast Africa.[33] The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and Kilwa. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu.[34]
In the early modern period, successor states of the Adal and Ajuuraan empires began to flourish in Somalia. These were the Warsangali Sultanate, the Bari Dynasties and the Gobroon dynasty. They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires.
19th century
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg/220px-Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg)
Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the Golden age of the Gobroon dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African ivory trade. He also received presents and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, Wituland and Yemeni sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast. In northern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.
In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference, European powers began the Scramble for Africa, which inspired the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan to rally support from across the Horn of Africa and begin one of the longest colonial resistance wars ever. In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan emphasized that the British "have destroyed our religion and made our children their children" and that the Christian Ethiopians in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as kafir or gaal. He soon acquired weapons from Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other Islamic and/or Arabian countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the Dervish state was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Though Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea, he committed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1,500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region.
He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had relations with the Central Powers of the Ottoman and German Empires.
20th century
In 1920, the Dervish state collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a protectorate. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia according to the plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the Benadir territory. Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925, Mussolini gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Taleh_Castle.jpg/220px-Taleh_Castle.jpg)
Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But before the plan could be carried out there should be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the Corpo Zaptié, as a colonial force.
In preparation for the plan of invasion of the sultanates, the Alula Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the forty year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.
Coronaro's survey concluded that the Ismaan Sultanate (Majeerteen) depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked any resistance which could be mounted came after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over possession of Nugaal, and form a united front against their common enemy.
The Sultanate of Hobyo was different from that of the Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by Yusuf Ali Kenadid in the middle of the 19th century in central Somalia. Its jurisdiction stretched from Ceeldheer (El Dher) through to Dhusamareb in the south-west, from Galladi to Galkayo in the west, from Jariban to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.
By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925. Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. Hobyo, Ceelbuur (El Buur), Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, Omar Samatar, recaptured El Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El Buur but they were repulsed. On 15 November the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties.
While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed operations intended to overcome the El Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously, and to prevent any more failure he requested two battalions from Eritrea to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as Western Somalia.
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The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the Adwa fiasco when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.
While the situation remained perplexing, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Mogadishu. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To maneuver the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they became pessimistic about the results.
To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than had the military campaign, and the resistance began gradually to wear down. Given the anarchy which would follow, the new policy was a success.
On the military front, on 26 December 1925 Italian troops finally overran El Buur, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.
By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king) Osman Mahamuud with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At Hafun, Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.
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On 13 October, Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at Baargaal to press for his surrender. Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October, Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Following this a full scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and destroyed to the ground. This region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader Hersi Boqor, son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Hafun, two strategic coastal towns. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, at the tip of the Horn. In retaliation the Bernica and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured Eyl (Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure.
De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing Iskushuban, at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to target and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927, the Italians had nearly taken control of the sultanate. Hersi Boqor and his troops retreated to Ethiopia in order to rebuild their forces, but were unable to retake their territories, effectively ending the Campaign of the Sultanates.
World War II
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On May 9, 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the Italian Empire, calling it the Africa Orientale Italiana (A.O.I.) and formed by Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. The Italians made many new investments in infrastructure in the region, such as the Strada Imperiale ("imperial road") between Addis Ababa and Mogadishu.
Over the course of Italian Somaliand's existence, many Somali troops fought in the so-called Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali. The soldiers were enrolled as Dubats, Zaptié and Bande irregolari. During World War II, these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in Libya and Eritrea. The Zaptié provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian Viceroy (Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptié plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the Carabinieri. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major Alfredo Serranti that defended Culqualber (Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the Allies. After heavy fighting, the Somali troops and the Italian Carabinieri received full military honors from the British.[35]
In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia and the colony was one of the most developed in East Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the Somalis, mainly in the urban areas. More than 10,000 Italians were living in Mogadishu, the administrative capital of the Africa Orientale Italiana, and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition. By 1940, the Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi (Jowhar) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were Italian Somalians, and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.).[36]
In the second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded British Somaliland[37] and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British East Africa Protectorate bordering Jubaland around the towns of Moyale and Buna.[38]
Independence
Following World War II, Britain regained control of British Somaliland and conquered Italian Somaliland, administering both militarily as protectorates. In November 1949, during the Potsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somalian political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.[39][40] British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.[41]
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.[42] Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,[43] the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably 'protected' by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against plundering by Somali clans.[44]
Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.[39] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.[39] Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited[45] Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.[46]
A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[47] There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.[48] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[47] Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).[47]
British Somaliland became independent on June 26, 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later.[49] On July 1, 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.[50][51] A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become President from 1967–1969). On July 20, 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960.[52] In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia.
On October 15, 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on October 21, 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.[53]
Communist rule
Supreme Revolutionary Council
Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.[54] The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic,[55][56] dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.[57]
The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974.[58] That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).[59]
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially communist.[57]
Ogaden War
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In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' Cold War arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[60]
Rebellion
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politburo continued to rule.[56] In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.[57]
In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile accident near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm.[61] He was treated in a hospital in Saudi Arabia for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month.[62][63] Lieutenant General Mohamed Ali Samatar, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on December 23, 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.[61][62]
By that time, the moral authority of Barre's government had collapsed. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly totalitarian, and resistance movements, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the Somali Civil War. Among the militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
Somali Civil War
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With the political situation deteriorating, Barre's long-standing government in 1991 eventually collapsed under the pressure. The national army disbanded shortly afterwards.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the force was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts aimed at stabilizing the situation were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south to provide humanitarian relief.
Some militias that had seized power after the Barre regime's ouster interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the Battle of Mogadishu, an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader Mohamed Farah Aidid. The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties.
Decentralization
Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: civil law, religious law and customary law.[64]
Civil law
While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the Siad Barre regime, it was later gradually rebuilt and administered under different regional governments, such as the autonomous Puntland and Somaliland macro-regions. In the case of the later Transitional Federal Government, a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences.
Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law include: a) a charter which affirms the primacy of Muslim shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the judiciary, which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; b) a three-tier judicial system including a supreme court, a court of appeals, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and c) the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military coup d'état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.[65]
Shari'a
Islamic shari'a has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war, when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.[65]
The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.[65]
Xeer
Somalis have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, which they call Xeer. Xeer is a polycentric legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.
The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. Its legal terminology is practically devoid of loan words from foreign languages, suggesting that it is truly indigenous.[66]
The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of specialization of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find odayaal (judges), xeerbogeyaal (jurists), guurtiyaal (detectives), garxajiyaal (attorneys), markhaatiyal (witnesses) and waranle (police officers) to enforce the law.[67]
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of jus cogens in international law: These precepts include: a) payment of blood money (locally referred to as diya) for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter-clan relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups "Birr Magaydo," (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets, messengers, sheikhs, and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of dowry, and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor.[65]
Recent history
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Transitional National Government
In 2000, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan was selected as the President of the nation's new Transitional National Government (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.
On October 10, 2004, in a session held by the Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP), former Puntland President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected as President of the succeeding Transitional Federal Government (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.[68] He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, erstwhile Somali ambassador to Washington Abdullahi Ahmed Addou, got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, peacefully withdrew his candidature.[69][70] Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on October 14, 2004.[70]
Transitional Federal Institutions
The Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs) are the key foundations of the central government of Somalia. Created in 2004, they include the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC), the Transitional Federal Government, and the Transitional Federal Parliament. The Transitional Federal Charter outlines a five-year mandate leading toward the establishment of a new constitution and a transition to a representative government after national elections.
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) is the current internationally recognized federal government of Somalia. It constitutes the executive branch of government. The TFG is the most recent attempt to restore national institutions to Somalia after the 1991 collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the ensuing Somali Civil War.[64]
The Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP) is the parliament of Somalia. Formed in 2004, it constitutes the legislative branch of government. The TFP elects the President and Prime Minister, and has the authority to propose and pass laws. It is also in charge of governance and administration of Mogadishu. Each of the four major clans hold 61 seats, while an alliance of minority clans hold 31 seats. After an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union and other Islamist groups was formed, the Islamists were awarded 200 seats. Representatives of citizens' groups and representatives of the Somali diaspora hold 75 seats. By law, at least 12% of all representatives must be women. Members of parliament are selected through traditional clan leaders or shura councils.
Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention
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In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed Shari'a law. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of Ethiopian troops, African Union peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.[71]
On January 8, 2007, as the Battle of Ras Kamboni raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the Somali Army and decorated war hero, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in the capital from its interim location in Baidoa. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.[72]
Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab, regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.[73]
Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.[74][75]
On December 29, 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen year conflict as his government had mandated to do.[76] He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the Charter of the Transitional Federal Government.[77]
Coalition government
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/ShababFlag.svg/220px-ShababFlag.svg.png)
Between May 31 and June 9, 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, the son of slain former President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, as the nation's new Prime Minister.[64]
With the help of a small team of African Union troops, the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a moderate Sufi militia.[78] Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and Hizbul Islam, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.[79]
As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.[80] However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from the previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.[72]
New government
On October 14, 2010, diplomat Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed (Farmajo) was appointed the new Prime Minister of Somalia. The former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned the month before following a protracted dispute with President Sharif over a proposed draft constitution.[81]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg/220px-Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg)
Per the Transitional Federal Government's (TFG) Charter,[82] Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on November 12, 2010,[83] which has been lauded by the international community.[84][85] As had been expected, the allotted ministerial positions were significantly reduced in numbers, with only 18 administrative posts unveiled versus the previous government's bloated 39 portfolios.[83][86] Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane, the former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim was reassigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.[87] Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a moderate Sufi group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries.[86][87] The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to the Somali political arena.[88]
In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over the nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a code of ethics.[89]
An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and all travel by ministers now require the Premier’s consent.[89][90] A budget outlining 2011’s federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition, a full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of 60% of Mogadishu, where 80% of the capital’s population now lives. According to the African Union and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate.[89][91]
On June 19, 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. Part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions, the agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new elections are to be organized.[92] Abdiweli Mohamed Ali, Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent Prime Minister.[93]
The Transitional Federal Government continues to reach out to both Somali and international stakeholders to help grow the administrative capacity of the Transitional Federal Institutions and to work toward eventual national elections in 2012,[94] when the interim government's mandate expires.[93]
Timelines
Ancient
Muslim era
- 700 - 1000 AD: City states in Somalia trade with Arab merchants and adopt Islam.
- 1300 - 1400 AD: Mogadishu and other prosperous Somali city-states are visited by Ibn Battuta and Zheng He.
- 1500 - 1660: The rise and fall of the Adal Sultanate.
- 1528 - 1535: Jihad against Ethiopia led by Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed").[96]
- 1400 - 1700: The rise and fall of the Ajuuraan Empire.
- 1800 - 1900: Geledi Sultanate (Gobroon dynasty)/Hobyo Sultanate.
Modern era
- 20 July 1887 : British Somaliland protectorate (in the north) subordinated to Aden to 1905.
- 3 August 1889: Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).
- 1900: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan spearheads a Somali war against foreigners and creates the Dervish state.
- 16 March 1905: Italian Somalia (Italian Somaliland) colony (in the northeast and in the south).
- July 1910: Italian Somaliland a crown colony
- 1920: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (called "the Mad Mullah" by the British) dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends.
- 15 January 1935: Italian Somalia part of Italian East Africa with Italian Eritrea (and from 1936 Ethiopia).
- 1 June 1936: Part of Italian East Africa (province of Somalia, formed by the merger of the colony and the Ethiopian region of Ogaden.
World War II
- 18 August 1940: Italian occupation of British Somaliland.
- February 1941: British administration of Italian Somalia.
Independence and Cold War
- 1 April 1950: Italian Somalia becomes United Nations trust territory administration and Somalia is promised independence within 10 years.
- 26 June 1960: Independence of British Somalia to reunite with Italian Somalia.
- 1 July 1960: Reunification of British Somalia with Italian Somalia to form the Somali Republic.
- 1 July 1960: First president of Somali National Assembly, Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf.
- 1960 - 1967: Presidency of Aden Abdullah Osman Daar
- 1967 - 1969: Presidency of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke; assassinated by one of his own bodyguards.[97]
- 21 October 1969: Somali Democratic Republic.
- 1969 - 1991: Siad Barre, leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power.
- 23 July 1977 - 15 March 1978: Ogaden War.
- 1982: 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War.
See also
- Economic history of Somalia
- History of Africa
- List of colonial governors of British Somaliland
- List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland
- List of Presidents of Somalia
- Prime Minister of Somalia
- Xeer
Notes
- ^ pg 9 - Becoming Somaliland By Mark Bradbury
- ^ Susan M. Hassig, Zawiah Abdul Latif, Somalia, (Marshall Cavendish: 2007), p.22
- ^ pg 105 - A History of African archaeology By Peter Robertshaw
- ^ pg 40 - Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia, by Steven A. Brandt World Archaeology, 1988
- ^ Prehistoric Implements from Somaliland by H. W. Seton-Karr pg 183
- ^ The Missionary review of the world - Page 132
- ^ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London pg 447
- ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p.147
- ^ Breasted & 1906-07, pp. 246–295, vol. 1.
- ^ The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries by James Talboys Wheeler pg 528
- ^ The British Critic, Quarterly Theological Review, And Ecclesiastical Record Volume 11 pg 434
- ^ a b Wheeler pg 526
- ^ Near Eastern archaeology: a reader – By Suzanne Richard pg 120
- ^ pg 258 - The commerce between the Roman Empire and India By Eric Herbert Warmington
- ^ pg 28 - Foreign trade and economic development in Africa: a historical perspective By Solomon Daniel Neumark
- ^ pg 186 - The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India
- ^ pg 217 - The Periplus of the Erythræan sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean - Wilfred Harvey Schoff
- ^ Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.
- ^ pg 90 - The Ethiopians: a history By Richard Pankhurst
- ^ pg 222 - The Portuguese Pioneers By Edgar Prestage
- ^ Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver
- ^ Da Gama's First Voyage pg.88
- ^ East Africa and its Invaders pg.38
- ^ Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa pg.35
- ^ The return of Cosmopolitan Capital:Globalization, the State and War pg.22
- ^ The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century By R. J. Barendse
- ^ Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa pg.30
- ^ Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 pg 2
- ^ East Africa and its Invaders pg.37
- ^ Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa pg.45
- ^ Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society pg 76
- ^ The Portuguese period in East Africa - Page 112
- ^ Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581-1640 - Page 25
- ^ Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology - Page 11
- ^ "Non tutti sanno che... Zaptié" (in Italian)
- ^ Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in italian)
- ^ http://books.google.it/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq=Mussolini+unleashed+1939-1941&source=web&ots=bmUFdHvwt3&sig=jC3JifKMffvOg6Ss83em2gWtQm4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA154,M1
- ^ http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html The first map shows the Italian occupied areas around Moyale/Buna
- ^ a b c Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p. 106
- ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (26 November 2003). Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience : the concise desk reference. Running Press. p. 1749. ISBN 978-0-7624-1642-4. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ Paolo Tripodi (1999). The colonial legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu : from colonial administration to Operation Restore Hope. Macmillan Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-312-22393-9. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. countrystudies.us
- ^ Federal Research Division, Somalia: A Country Study, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p. 38
- ^ Laitin, p. 73
- ^ Francis Vallat, First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May-26 July 1974, (United Nations: 1974), p. 20
- ^ Laitin, p. 75
- ^ a b c Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115
- ^ Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Encyclopaedia Britannica: 2002), p. 835
- ^ "The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960". Buluugleey.com. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
- ^ "The making of a Somalia state". Strategypage.com. 2006-08-09. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
- ^ Greystone Press Staff, The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338
- ^ Moshe Y. Sachs, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p. 290.
- ^ Adam, Hussein Mohamed (1997). Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century. Red Sea Press. p. 226. ISBN 1569020736.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p. 478.
- ^ a b The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p. 214.
- ^ a b c Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy, (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p. 279 ISBN 0709927096.
- ^ Benjamin Frankel, The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, (Gale Research: 1992), p. 306 ISBN 0810389282.
- ^ Oihe Yang, Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025 ISBN 1857430786.
- ^ Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations, (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222 ISBN 0874368928.
- ^ a b World of Information (Firm), Africa review, (World of Information: 1987), p.213.
- ^ a b Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William Overstreet, Political Handbook of the World 2008, (CQ Press: 2008), p.1198.
- ^ National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Committee on Human Rights, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Health and Human Rights, Scientists and human rights in Somalia: report of a delegation, (National Academies: 1988), p.9.
- ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference
2009factbook
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d Dr Andre Le Sage (2005-06-01). "Stateless Justice in Somalia" (PDF). Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. Retrieved 2009-06-26.
- ^ "The Rule of Law without the State – Spencer Heath MacCallum – Mises Daily". Mises.org. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ "Back to Somali roots". Hiiraan.com. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country
- ^ Somalia MPs elect new president
- ^ a b Rulers - Somalia - October 2004
- ^ "Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia". Globalpolicy.org. 2007-08-14. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ a b Online, Garowe (2011-01-12). "Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term". Garoweonline.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2009-05-01). "USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia". Unhcr.org. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ "Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009". Garoweonline.com. 2008-12-25. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts". Unis.unvienna.org. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Somalia's president quits office", BBC News, December 29, 2008.
- ^ "Somali President Yusuf resigns", Reuters (FT.com), December 29, 2008.
- ^ Kamaal says: (2010-05-22). "UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit". Horseedmedia.net. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ "Islamists break Somali port truce". BBC News. 2009-10-21. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ Shariah in Somalia – Arab News
- ^ "Somali-American is new prime minister in Somalia". Foxnews.com. 2010-02-01. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "Approves Somalia's New PM After Repeated Delays". Allheadlinenews.com. 2010-10-31. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ a b "New Somali Prime Minister Unveils Smaller Cabinet". Abcnews.go.com. 2010-11-12. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Somali Prime Minister Unveiled His Cabinet". English.alshahid.net. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Somali Lawmakers Pass Proposed Cabinet". Cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30. [dead link]
- ^ a b US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (2010-11-13). "Somali PM unveils leaner cabinet". Thepeninsulaqatar.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ a b "Somali Premier Unveils New Cabinet". Garoweonline.com. 2010-11-12. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "Somali PM names new cabinet". News.xinhuanet.com. 2010-11-13. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ a b c "Security Council Meeting on Somalia". Somaliweyn.org. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Somali PM: Anyone in gov't who commits corruption will be brought to justice". Allheadlinenews.com. 2011-01-04. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ "Making Gains – AMISOM forces take new territory" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-12.
- ^ Somalia: PM Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo resigns. Bbc.co.uk (2011-06-19). Retrieved on 2011-12-15.
- ^ a b Gettleman, Jeffrey (2011-06-23). "Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
CIAwfb
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times Chapter 4: Punt Land: Ancient Somali Contacts with Egypt CivicsWeb
- ^ a b Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times Chapter 5: Puntland: Ancient Somali Contacts With Other Countries CivicsWeb
- ^ Moshe Y. Sachs, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p.290
References
- Samatar (ed.), Said S. (2005). "Somalia Country Studies". Federal Research Division of Library of Congress.
{{cite journal}}
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