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{{Otheruses4|the political term|other uses|Head of state (disambiguation)}}
'''Head of state''' is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a [[monarchy]], [[republic]], [[federation]], [[commonwealth]] or other kind of [[Sovereign state|state]]. His or her role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's [[constitution]] and laws. In [[nation states]] the head of state is often thought of as the official "leader" of the nation.

[[Charles de Gaulle]] described the role he envisaged for the French president when he wrote the modern French [[constitution]], stating the head of state should embody "the spirit of the nation" for the nation itself and the world: ''une certaine idée de la France'' (a certain idea about France). Today many countries expect their head of state to embody national values in a similar fashion.
{{Executive}}

==Constitutional models==

In [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]]ary terms, states are distinguished as [[monarchy]] or [[republic]] depending on the style (and usually mode of accession, see below) of their head of state, a typical constitutional provision, but as such this is not defining for the actual political system, which often evolves significantly within either or can remain unaltered in other respects despite a transition from monarchy to republic (or, rarer, vice versa).

Different state [[constitution]]s (fundamental laws) establish different political systems, but four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:
# the ''non-executive'' head of state system, in which the head of state does not hold any executive power and mainly plays a symbolic role on behalf of the state;
# the [[parliamentary system]], in which the head of state possesses executive power but the exercise of this power is done on the advice of a cabinet;
# the [[presidential system]], in which the head of state is also the [[head of government]] and actively exercises executive power; and
# the [[semi-presidential system]], in which the head of state shares exercise with a head of government.

===Non-executive head of state===
Its holders are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state [[Style (manner of address)|styles]] of "His/Her Majesty's Government" or "His/Her Excellency's Government." Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The King of Sweden, since the passage of the modern Swedish constitution (the [[Instrument of Government (1974)|Instrument of Government]]) in the mid 1970s, no longer has any of the parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to Swedish kings, but still receives formal cabinet briefings monthly in the royal palace. In contrast, the only contact the Irish president has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister) to the President. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the [[Department of the Taoiseach]] (prime minister's office). The President does however hold reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.

===Parliamentary system===<!-- This section is linked from [[Austria]] -->
[[Image:Elizabeth II greets NASA GSFC employees, May 8, 2007 edit.jpg|thumb|left|Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], one of the world's best known and [[List of longest reigning monarchs of all time|longest serving heads of state]].]]

In [[parliamentary system]]s the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer of the state, possessing executive power (hence the description of the [[United Kingdom]] [[monarch]]'s government as His/[[Her Majesty's Government]]; a term indicating that all power belongs to the sovereign and the government acts on Her Majesty's behalf, not parliament's). In reality however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], presided over by a [[prime minister]] who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability requires that someone be chosen from parliament who has parliament's support (or, at least, not parliament's opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives parliament the right to vote down the government, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Governments are thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to parliament, with the government in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]] to the head of state.

In parliamentary [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]], the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the [[Glorious Revolution]], the English Parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (joint monarchs [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] and [[William III of England|William III]]); likewise, [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]]'s abdication required the passage of a law in the parliament of each of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s, given the independence of each country's monarchy in [[personal union]]. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the [[Constitution of Spain]]).

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. For example, the 1848 constitution of the [[Italy|Kingdom of Italy]] was sufficiently ambiguous and outdated by the 1920s to give King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] leeway to appoint [[Benito Mussolini]] to power in controversial circumstances. Some Commonwealth parliamentary systems combine a body of written constitutional law, unwritten constitutional precedent, [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]], [[Letter patent|letters patent]], etc. that may give a head of state or their representative additional powers in unexpected circumstances (such as the [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis|dismissal]] of [[Australia]]n prime minister [[Gough Whitlam]] by [[Governor-General]] Sir [[John Kerr (Governor-General)|John Kerr]].)

Other examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III of the Belgians]] to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After [[World War II]], Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.)

===Presidential system===
[[Image:Washington (3).jpg|thumb|200px|[[George Washington]], the first president of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican governments.]]
''Note: "presidential" in this context does not automatically imply a [[president]] but any head of state – elected, hereditary, or dictatorial – who presides. It is sometimes called the "imperial model," without regard for the monarchic title emperor, rather referring to the luster.''

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not just in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is sometimes known as a "presidential system" because the government is answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive answerability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the [[United States|United States of America]]). In this case the debate centres on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members ''en bloc'', so it is not answerability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.

Some presidential systems may also include a prime minister, but, as with the other ministers, they are responsible to the president, not the legislature. In many such instances the office is of minimal political importance, sometimes even held by some administrative technocrat rather than a politician. A prime minister in a presidential system lacks the constitutional and political dominance of a prime minister in a parliamentary system and is often seen as simply a politically junior figure who may run the mechanics of government while allowing the president to set the broad national agenda.

[[Presidential system]]s are a notable feature of constitutions in the [[Americas]], including those of the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]] and [[Mexico]]; this is generally attributed to the influence of the [[United States Constitution]], as the United States served as an inspiration and model for the [[Latin American wars of independence]] of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or ''[[coup d'état]]'', as often seen in [[Latin America]]n, [[Middle East]]ern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], [[constitutional monarchy|parliamentary monarchies]] and [[single party]] (e.g. [[Communism|Communist]]) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship apply their stated constitutional models in name only and not in political theory or practice.

In the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the [[impeachment]] of President [[Andrew Johnson]] and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] becoming the [[De-facto|real]] center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations ([[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]], [[James Garfield|Garfield]] and [[William McKinley|McKinley]]) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]].

===Semi-presidential systems===
[[Image:De Gaulle-OWI.jpg|thumb|left|President [[Charles de Gaulle]] was responsible for establishing the semi-presidential system of France.]]
Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the [[Fifth French Republic]] provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]]. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as [[Cohabitation (government)|Cohabitation]]. President [[François Mitterrand]], a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) [[Jacques Chirac]], who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic agenda.

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. [[Weimar Germany]], for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]], which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, [[Paul von Hindenburg]], was able to dismiss a [[chancellor]] and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

===Single-party states===
[[File:Brezhnev 1973.jpg|thumb|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] twice was the [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|head of state of the Soviet Union]]]]
Since real political power belongs to the head of the sole legal party, in certain states under Marxist constitutions of the [[Socialist state|constitutionally socialist state]] type inspired by the former USSR and its constitutive [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the head of the legislative "soviet" branch of power was considered the head of state. In the Soviet Union this office carried such titles as "Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR," "Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council" and "Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets" in the case of [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] (until 1922). This position may or may not have been held by the [[de facto]] Soviet leader at the moment. For example, [[Nikita Khruschov]] never headed the Supreme Soviet but ruled as Secretary General of party and prime minister.

This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in [[North Korea]], where, after the presidency of party leader [[Kim Il Sung]], the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of president "in eternity" (while all real power, as party leader, itself not formally created for 4 years, was inherited by his son [[Kim Jong Il]], initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike [[Deng Xiaoping]] earlier in the People's Republic of China.

===Complications with categorisation===
While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. Constitutional change in [[Liechtenstein]] in 2003 gave its head of state, the [[Prince of Liechtenstein|Prince]], constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the legislature, has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the [[List of Presidents of Greece|Greek President]] under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model. And the power of the monarch of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s to dismiss any of his or her governments at will would suggest that any of the realms should nominally belong to the semi-presidential category also. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. As a general rule, the Vice-Regal representative of the monarch acts on the advice of the leader of the majority of the lower house, but on two occasions at least, this advice has been ignored: in the cases of the dismissal of the legitimate governments of New South Wales in 1932, and of the Australian federal government in 1975.

Another complication exists with [[South Africa]], in which the [[President of South Africa|President]] is in fact elected by the legislature (similar, in principle, to a prime minister) but also holds the title of President, serves for a fixed term, and is expected to be the nation's head of state. [[Nauru]] and [[Botswana]] are similar.

[[Panama]], during the military dictatorships of [[Omar Torrijos]] and [[Manuel Noriega]], was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the military.

==Roles==
Often depending on which constitutional category (above) a head of state belongs to, they may have some or all of the roles listed below, and various other ones.

===Symbolic role===
[[Image:canadacourt2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A large portrait of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], with [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Prince Philip]], hanging in a Canadian courthouse.]]
One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living [[national symbol]] of the state; in monarchies this extends to the sovereign being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the [[Monarchy of Canada|Canadian monarch]] is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state, and is described by the [[Department of Canadian Heritage]] as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians."<ref name="Heritage">{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/special/royalvisit/ENGLISH.pdf|title=The Crown in Canada|accessdate=2008-05-21|publisher=[[Department of Canadian Heritage]]|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="Buck2">[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page5179.asp Buckingham Palace: The Queen and Commonwealth: Canada: The Queen's role in Canada]</ref>

In many countries, official [[portrait]]s of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to mediaeval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state begins to believe that he is the only symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a [[personality cult]] where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the [[flag]], [[constitution]], [[founding father]](s) etc. Modern champions in this field include [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Mao Zedong]], and [[Kim Jong Il]], whose tenures as heads of state were or are accompanied by a significant [[cult of personality]]. Other common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps, and banknotes; more discreet variations see them represented by a mention and/or signature. Furthermore, various institutions, monuments, and the like, are named for current or previous heads of state, such as streets and squares, schools, charitable and other organisations; in monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective 'royal' on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.

In general, the active duties amount to a ceremonial role. Thus in diplomatic affairs, heads of state are often the first person to greet an important foreign visitor. They may also assume a sort of informal host role during the VIP's visit, inviting the visitor to a [[state dinner]] at his or her mansion or palace, or some other equally hospitable affair.

At home, they are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions, expositions, celebrations, military parades and remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting parts of the country, enterprises, care facilities (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table etc.), sometimes performing a symbolic act such as cutting a ribbon or pushing a button at an opening, christening something with champagne, laying the first stone, and so on. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.

As the potential for such invitations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated: to such persons as a spouse, other members of the dynasty, a vice-president &mdash;for whom this is often the core of their public role&mdash; or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without giving protocollary offence) just a military or other aide.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the prime minister), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.

===Chief diplomatic officer===
The head of state accredits his or her country's [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]]s, [[High Commissioner]]s or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs (such as [[papal nuncio]]), through sending formal [[Letter of Credence]] to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts. Without that accreditation, they cannot take up a role and receive the highest diplomatic status. However, there are provisions in international law to perform the same diplomatic functions, or at least part of them, such as accrediting, with a lower title with the head of government, or functioning within another mission.

The head of state also signs international treaties on behalf of the state, or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent [[ratification]], when necessary, usually rests with the [[legislature]].

In Canada, Australia and New Zealand, these roles of the head of state have been taken over by the [[Viceroy|vice-regal]] representative.

::'''Example 1:''' Article 59 (1) of the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany]] states:
:::''The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys.''
::'''Example 2:''' Section 2, Article 81 of the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] states:
:::''The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.''

===Chief executive officer===
In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, [[executive branch|executive authority]] is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, [[de facto]] chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The few exceptions include the [[Czech Republic]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and [[Sweden]], where executive authority is explicitly vested in the cabinet.

::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 2, Section 1 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.''

::'''Example 2 (constitutional monarchy):''' According to Section 12 of the [[Constitution of Denmark]] 1953:
:::''Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.''

::'''Example 3 (constitutional monarchy):''' Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900:
:::''The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.''

::'''Example 4 (republican parliamentary system):''' According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 [[Constitution of Greece]]:
:::''The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and by the government.''

===Chief appointments officer===
The head of state appoints most or all the key officials in the government and [[civil service]], including members of the cabinet, the [[prime minister]] or equivalent, key judicial figures, and all major office holders. In many parliamentary systems, the [[head of government]] (e.g. prime minister) is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice. Some countries have alternative provisions: under Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Sweden|Instrument of Government]], 1974, the constitution of Sweden grants to the [[Speaker of the parliament of Sweden|parliamentary speaker]] the role of formally appointing the [[Prime Minister of Sweden|prime minister]].

In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time a [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]] unilaterally selected the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|UK's prime minister]] was in 1963, when Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] chose Sir [[Alec Douglas-Home]] to succeed [[Harold Macmillan]] as her chief advisor in that country. In Canada, a similar situation took place in 1925 wherein [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy|Lord Byng of Vimy]] appointed [[Arthur Meighen]] after [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] refused to resign the premiership (known as the [[King-Byng Affair]]). [[Governor-General of Australia]] Sir [[John Kerr (Governor-General)|John Kerr]] appointed [[Malcolm Fraser]] as [[Caretaker government|caretaker prime minister]] after dismissing [[Gough Whitlam]].

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the President's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to parliamentary confirmation (in the case of the US, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority).

The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the [[President of Ireland|President]] on the advice of the Taoiseach (prime minister); in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used. In [[France]], while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of his government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, convention calls for cabinet secretaries to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.

::'''Example 1 (semi-presidential system):''' Chapter 4, Section 2 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Korea]] states:
:::''The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Article 13.1.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]]:
:::''The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann [the lower house], appoint the Taoiseach [prime minister].''

===Legislative roles===
[[File:Barack Obama signs Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 1-29-09.jpg|right|220px|thumb|left|President Obama signing the [[Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009]] into law; to his right is the new law’s namesake, [[Lilly Ledbetter]].]]
Most countries require that all [[bill (proposed law)|bill]]s passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of parliament. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as ''[[promulgation]]''. Some monarchical states call this procedure ''[[Royal Assent]]''.
::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 1, Section 7 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated... ''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Section 11.a.1. of the [[Basic Laws of Israel]] states:
:::''The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.''

In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with the Royal Prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a [[referendum]].

If he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

===Military role===
[[Image:REAGANREVIEWSTROOPS.jpg|thumb|right|220px|United States President [[Ronald Reagan]] reviews a line of troops at the recommissioning ceremony for the [[USS New Jersey (BB-62)|USS ''New Jersey'']].]]
A head of state is generally the literal, or notional, [[commander-in-chief]] of a state's [[armed forces]], holding the highest office in all military [[chain of command|chains of command]].
::'''Example 1:''' Article II, Section 2 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.''
::'''Example 2:''' Article III, Section 15 of the [[Constitution Act, 1867]], a part of the [[Constitution of Canada]], states:
:::''The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen.''<ref>[http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html Constitution Act, 1867]</ref>

In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency the head of state may hold the ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written or conventional laws, exercise their authority on the advice of their ministers, meaning de facto decision making on military manoeuvers lies with the cabinet. The monarch or president will, however, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; in the case of a female sovereign her consort and other members of the royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primate of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.

In [[military dictatorship]]s, or governments which have arisen from ''coups-d'etat'', the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King [[Albert I of Belgium]] did during [[World War I]]. In these, and revolutionary, regimes, the head of state, and often [[executive minister]]s whose office in legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.

===Summoning and dissolving the legislature===
A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is done on the advice of the head of government (e.g. Prime Minister) or cabinet. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term parliaments, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the [[U.S. Constitution]]). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost the confidence of parliament, some heads of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, where one is requested, forcing the head of government's resignation.
::'''Example:''' Article 13.2.2. of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] states:
:::''The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve [[Dáil Éireann]] on the advice of a Taoiseach [Prime Minister] who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann''

===Other prerogatives===
{{See also|reserve power}}
* Right of [[pardon]]
* Granting [[nobility]], [[knighthood]] and various titles and other honours

==Selection and various types and styles of Heads of State==
Various heads of state use a multitude of different styles and titles, often with many variations in content under diverse constitutions, even in a given state. In numerous cases, two or more of the following peculiar types apply, not counting the primary duo monarchy-republic. There are also several methods of [[head of state succession]] in the event of the removal or death of a sitting head of state.

In a monarchy, the [[Monarch]] is the Head of State. This is a relatively recent phenomenon; until the last few decades a sovereign was seen as the personal embodiment of the state (''"[[L'etat c'est moi]]"'', so to speak), and therefore could not be head of himself or herself (hence many constitutions from the 19th century and earlier make no mention of a "head of state"). Though some still maintain that calling a Monarch Head of State is incorrect, it has now become a widespread political convention to attach the label to Monarchs, regardless of their political position.
The [[Emperor of Japan]] is defined as a symbol, not head, of state by the post-war constitution (contrasting with the former divine status) but is treated as an imperial head of state under diplomatic protocol (even ranking above kings) and retains Shinto mystique.

For the numerous styles in past and present monarchies, in most cases commonly -though often not quite accurately- rendered as [[monarch|King]] or [[Emperor]], but also many other (e.g. [[Grand duke]], [[Sultan]]), see [[Prince]], [[princely state]] and [[monarchy]].

In a [[republic]], the head of state is nowadays usually styled [[President]], and usually their permanent constitutions provide for election, but many have or had other titles and even specific constitutional positions (see below), and some have used simply 'head of state' as their only formal title.

===Shared and substitute heads of state===
====Interim====
Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body.

In a monarchy, this is usually a [[regent]] or collegial regency (council). In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a [[vice-president]], the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer.

====Delegation====
<!-- Commented out: [[Image:EIIR-different.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Three portraits of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] illustrating her different positions as sovereign. '''''Left''''': as [[Monarchy of New Zealand|Queen of New Zealand]], wearing the [[Order of New Zealand]], the [[Queen's Service Order]], and the sash and the star of the New Zealand [[New Zealand Honours System|Order of Merit]]; '''''centre''''': as [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada]], wearing the [[Monarch|Sovereign]]'s insignia of the [[Order of Canada]] and the [[Order of Military Merit (Canada)|Order of Military Merit]]; '''''right''''': as [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]], wearing the insignia of the [[Order of the Garter]] and the [[Royal Family Order]]s of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] and [[King George VI]].|{{ifdc|1=EIIR-different.jpg|log=2009 July 20}}]] -->

In 2005, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] changed their policies and now all [[Letter of credence|letters of credence]] solely address the [[Governor-General]] of the relevant nation, not to the Sovereign. The Office of the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] stated in its press release announcing the changes to the Letters of Credence and Recall, issued 29 December 2004, that "in international diplomatic practice, Letters of Credence are formal diplomatic instruments that are presented by High Commissioners and Ambassadors to the Head of State of the host country... Letters of Credence and Recall presented by foreign High Commissioners and Ambassadors to Canada will now be addressed to the Governor General directly." This wording implies that the government of Canada, as least during the premiership of [[Paul Martin]], regarded the Governor General as the Canadian Head of State.<ref>[http://counterfactual.blogdrive.com/comments?id=295 Prime Minister of Canada: Canada updates diplomatic practice]</ref>
[[File:Sir Paulias Matane.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Sir [[Paulias Matane]], [[Governor-General of Papua New Guinea]], is the [[Viceroy|viceregal]] representative of [[Queen Elizabeth II|Elizabeth II]], [[Monarchy of Papua New Guinea|Queen of Papua New Guinea]].]]

Similarly, a 2004 report issued by the Canadian Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates recognised that the nation is a constitutional monarchy, however described the 1947 [[Letters Patent]] as having devolved all powers of the sovereign to the Governor General, making the latter head of state, and then continued to refer to the Governor General as head of state throughout the report.<ref>[http://www.parl.gc.ca/InfocomDoc/Documents/37/3/parlbus/commbus/house/reports/OGGO_Rpt02-e.htm The Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates: Second Report: The Governor General of Canada:Role, Duties and Funding for Activities]</ref> That same year, the then Governor General, [[Adrienne Clarkson]], attended a ceremony in [[France]] to recognize Canada's involvement at [[Juno Beach]] in the [[D-Day landings]] of 1944. Her office stated that she was present as Canada's head of state, and thus the Governor General was treated as the senior official in attendance, over even the Queen who was also present at the ceremony. While laying wreaths, the ceremony commentator stated that the Governor General was laying a wreath on behalf of Canada, whereas the Queen was laying a wreath on behalf of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. [[Rideau Hall]] later retracted the assertion that the Governor General attended as head of state, saying that it was an error of a junior official, but this did not explain the unusual shift in protocol observed at the ceremony itself.

In opposition to this thinking, in the opening of his first speech in the Canadian House of Commons as [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], [[Stephen Harper]] stated: "I'd like to acknowledge and thank a number of people. First of all I'd would like to pay tribute to our head of state, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II."<ref>[http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media_gallery.asp?media_category_id=20&page=3 Prime Minister backs the Speech from the Throne]</ref> As well, the Governor General of Canada's website now refers to the [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada]] as Canada's head of state.<ref>[http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp Governor General of Canada: Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General]</ref> However, the Canadian Letters of Credence and Recall continue to be issued in the name of, and addressed to the Governor General alone.

In the case of [[Andorra]], two [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Princes]] act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the [[President of France]], residing in France, and the other is the [[Diocese of Urgell|Bishop of Urgell]], residing in [[Spain]]. Each Co-Prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.

As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to vest in a true head of state of its own, it either has no comparable office, simply receiving those roles exercised by the paramount powers (in person or, most of the time, through an appointed representative, often styled (Lieutenant-)[[governor]], but also various other titles, on the [[Cook Islands]] even simply King/Queen's Representative) or has one, such as a formerly sovereign dynasty, but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, vassal or tributary status.

====Extraordinary arrangements====
In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a [[coup d'état]], constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a lesser role (legitimating the power taken over behind the throne) or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman [[Dictator]]) or eliminated by of new 'provisionary' regime (sincere or clinging to power), often a collective of the [[Military dictatorship|junta]] type, with endlessly varying names and composition, or simply find itself under military authority as imposed by an occupying force, such as a [[military governor]] (an early example being the [[Sparta]]n [[Harmost]]).{{Facts|date=December 2007}}

===Theocratic, Ecclesiocratic and other 'pious' Heads of State===
Since Antiquity, various dynasties -or individual rulers- claimed to have received the right to rule by divine authority, such as a [[mandate of heaven]].

Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, e.g., both the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] and the [[Great Inca]] allegedly were descended from their respective sun gods, and often maintained this legitimating bloodline by [[incest]]uous marriages. In pagan Rome, during the [[Principate]], the title ''divus'' ('divine') was conferred, notably posthumously, on the Princeps (commonly rendered as Emperor after the separate, not reserved title Imperator, but constitutionally a republican office, rather a head of government; formally the two eponymous consuls remained the joint heads of state), a symbolically crucial legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.

In Christianity ([[Roman Catholicism]], and in some cases continued by Protestant faiths):
* The [[Pope]] as Sovereign Pontiff, first, of the politically important [[Papal States]]; after the [[Italian unification]] ultimately just over [[Vatican City]].
* Various lower clerics (but mainly prelates) qualified as [[prince of the church]] (see there, e.g., [[prince-bishop]]); one case of a [[grand master (order)|grand master]] of a [[sovereign order]] remains, but it has been vested ''ex officio'' in the pope.
* In the [[Church of England]], the reigning monarch also holds the title [[Defender of the Faith]] and acts as Supreme Governor of the [[Church of England]], but that is pure [[caesaropapism]] (ironically anti-papist in origin): the state commands the church, which has no power over the state.

In Islam:
* [[Caliph]]s were the spiritual and temporal, absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed, but gradually lost political power. Various political Muslim leaders since styled themselves ''Caliph'' and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the [[Ottoman Sultan]].
* [[Imam]] of rare theocratic Muslim states known as imamates; notably:
**the present [[sultanate]] of [[Oman]] (`Uman) was ruled 661 - 1811/1821 by the [[Ibadi]] community under a religious leader styled ''Imam al-Muslimin'' "Imam of the Muslims"), a member of the Azd clan, with several interruptions under foreign rulers; in 1784 while Imam rule continued, Muscat and Oman became a de facto sovereign state under a secular Al ´Bu Sa`id ruler; 3 October 1868 - January 1871 Imam rule was briefly restored.
**in [[Yemen]], and with suzerainty over other parts of the Arabian peninsula
**in (Lower) `Asir, under the Idris dynasty, the religious style of Imam was combined with the temporal ruler style of [[Sheikh]] from 1830. Since 1909 the higher style (assumed by the last of four Shaikhs) of [[Emir]] was used until 20 November 1930 when the shaikhdom was incorporated into Hejaz-Nejd (which became modern [[Saudi Arabia]])
**in [[Nejd]] the Emirs (1744 - 1817) were, from 15 January 1902, also Imams and Protectors of the [[Wahhabi]]s (fundamentalist sect of Sunni Islam)
**the [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] Imams 1526 - 1548 ruled the later [[British Somalia]] and [[Somaliland]] (an interlude between Ottoman and other foreign regimes).
**In some of the 19th-century [[Jihad state]]s of the upper [[Niger river|Niger]] ([[Mali]]), the [[Massina Empire|Massina/Sise Jihad state]], its successor states in Segu and Massina after its conquest, and the [[Toucouleur Empire|Tijaniyya Jihad state]] (though these leaders had a variety of actual powers, and were also often styled [[Almami|Almamy]] or [[Caliph]]; the last ''fama'' of the Samori Empire (formerly [[Wassoulou Empire|Wassulu]]) till its extinction by French colonization.
**after the 1813 annexation into tsarist Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan, there was a nationalist 1828 - 1859 Imamate of [[Daghestan]] until its 1859 reincorporatation into the Russian Empire.
* [[Sheikh]], e.g., of the Sunni [[Sanusi order]] in Cyrenaica (Libya) since 1843, styled Emir since 25 October 1920
* In the Islamic Republic of [[Iran]] the ''rahbar'' ([[Supreme Leader]], at present [[Ali Khamenei]]) and a [[council of guardians]], all Shiah clerics, hold the highest offices in terms of political power (hence some consider it a theocracy), above the elected (sometimes lay) President, who is formally the constitutional head of government.
* The [[Aga Khan]]s, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of [[Shiite]] [[Islam]] in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's [[princely state]]s, continues to the present day.

In [[Hinduism]], certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as 'servant' of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a (prime) minister under a figure head of state, ruling 'in the name of' the patron god(ess), e.g.,
* [[Patmanabha Dasa]] (i.e., servant of Vishnu) in the case of the [[Maharaja]] of [[Travancore]].

In [[Buddhism]]:
* the [[Dalai Lama]] (a [[reincarnate]]d [[Buddha]]) was the political and spiritual leader ('god-king') of [[Tibet]] before annexation by the government of the [[People's Republic of China]].
* [[Outer Mongolia]], the former homeland of the imperial Genghis Khan-dynasty, was another [[Tibetan Buddhist|lamaist]] theocracy from 1585, using various styles in several languages, see [[Khutughtu]]; replaced on 20 May 1924 by a Communist republic of Mongolia (which assigned the Head of State role to chairmanships), later democratised.

===City states and crowned republics===
* The [[polis]] in Antiquity (actual Greek and many parallels, e.g., Italian) and the equivalent city states in the feudal era, and in some cases even much later, (many in Italy, the rest of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the Moorish ''taifa'' in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the [[Maya civilization]], etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see [[Chief magistrate]]
* [[Doge]]s were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but 'reigned' as sovereign dukes.
* The paradoxical term [[crowned republic]] refers to various state arrangements that combine 'republican' and 'monarchic' characteristics
* [[The Netherlands]] historically had officials called [[stadholder]]s and [[stadholder-general|stadholders-general]], titles meaning 'lieutenant', i.e. or governor, originally for the Habsburg monarchs

===Multiple or collective Heads of State===
[[File:Bundesrat_der_Schweiz_2009_in_Besetzung_gueltig_ab_2009-11-01.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council of Switzerland]], the ''seven-member collective Head of State of Switzerland'', in November 2009 (also depicted: [[Federal Chancellor of Switzerland|Federal Chancellor]], far right)]]
* in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal [[triumvirate]]s, [[Directoire]], and even to date [[Switzerland]] (seven-member [[Federal Council of Switzerland|Federal Council]], each acting in turn as ceremonial chief of state); [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (three member presidium, from three different nations); [[San Marino]] (two "Captains-regent");
* [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] (external shared sovereignty): monarchic as in [[Andorra]] (president of [[France]] and bishop of [[Urgell]], [[Spain]], co-princes), mixed as the former Anglo-French [[New Hebrides]] (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).
*In the [[Roman Republic]] there were two heads of state, styled [[Consul]], both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office.

Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolical, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. [[Head of the Commonwealth]] (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite [[King of Iraq]], during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).

===Unique cases and titles===
Though "president" and various monarchic titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning "leader" in the national language, such as Nazi Germany's single party chief and head of state and government, Adolf Hitler [[Führer]] (see that article for equivalents).

In 1959, when former [[United Kingdom|British]] crown colony [[Singapore]] gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style ''[[Yang di-Pertuan Negara]]'' (literally means "head of state" in [[Malay language|Malay]]) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, [[Yusof bin Ishak]], kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to [[Malaysia]] as a state (so now as a constitutive part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign [[republic within the Commonwealth|Commonwealth republic]] and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.

There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the [[Cultural Revolution]], following the downfall of [[Liu Shaoqi]], who was [[Chairman of the People's Republic of China]], no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the [[President of the People's Republic of China]].

In [[North Korea]], [[Kim Il-sung]] was named "eternal president" following his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally delegated to the [[Supreme People's Assembly]] whose chairman is "Head of State for foreign affairs" and performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by [[Kim Jong-il]], who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.

There is debate as to whether [[Samoa]] is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.

In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]], who kept absolute power (still known as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan ''Jamahiriya'' ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both his creatures.

Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic [[Cameroon]] (''Cameroun'', a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo (b. 1924 - d. 1989), was at first not styled ''président'' but 'merely' known as ''Chef d'état'' (literal French for 'Head of State') until 5 May 1960; in [[Uganda]], military coup leader since 25 January 1971 [[Idi Amin]] was formally styled ''military head of State'' till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) President.

Sometimes a state chooses to use a descriptive term instead of a specific style, possibly even by abolishing an existing one. Thus when the 18 September 1921 proclaimed Independence of the Rif, under an [[Emir]] (ambivalent word, either general or ruler; full Arabic style ''Amir ar-Rif'' 18 September 1921 - 1 February 1923) Sayyidi Muhammad bin `Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi; known as Abd el-Krim (b. 1882 - d. 1963) transformed itself on 1 February 1923 into the Rif Republic (''Dawlat al-Jumhuriyya ar-Rifiyya'', in Arabic means circa 'people's state of the Rif'), the same incumbent Head of State was now re-styled '''''Ra'is ad-Dawla''''' (a literal Arabic translation of "head of state") till it was dissolved, in 1926 by Franco-Spanish forces. When Iraq, which the British had cut out of the [[Ottoman Empire]] by force, became a separate state, yet not truly independent but a [[League of Nations mandate]], it first had a Chairman of the Council of State (11 November 1920 - 23 August 1921 Saiyid Abdul Rahman al-Haydari) until the establishment of the Hashemite kingdom, only later it was made fully independent; when it was declared a republic, it had a Chairman of Sovereignty Council (14 July 1958 - 8 February 1963 Muhammad Najib al-Rubai) before its first president.

==Legitimacy & Term in office==
The position of head of state (within, or as well as, the state) can be established in different ways, and based on different legitimations.
* ''Force'' is often the true origin of power, but to keep the victor’s right, formal legitimacy must be found, even if by fictitious claim of continuity such as forged descent or legacy from a previous dynasty
* There have also been true cases of granting sovereignty, such as dynastic splits (not just by laws of succession, also by deliberate acts); this is usually forced, such as self-determination granted after nationalist revolts, or the last [[Attalid]] king of Hellenistic [[Pergamon]] by testament leaving his realm to Rome (to avoid a disastrous conquest)
* Under [[theocracy]], divine status (as the [[Pharaoh]]'s; compare Roman [[divus]] and [[mandate of heaven]] as in imperial China) can render earthly authority under [[divine law]], theoretically unchallengeable; on the other hand, it can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, giving the priesthood that voices and interprets it a tool for political influence, control or even dominance (thus Pharaoh [[Echnaton]]'s reforms were undone by the Amun-priesthood after his death, possibly even elimination); often there is no clear model, so over time power can be disputed, as between the Pope and Holy Roman emperor in the [[Investiture]] conflict, as the temporal power seeks to guarantee its legitimation, including a formal ceremony during the coronation (such as [[unction]]; often crucial for popular support), by controlling key nominations in the clergy
* The notion of a [[social contract]] holds that the nation (the whole people, or just the electorate) gives a mandate, as through acclamation or election

Individual heads of state may acquire their position in a number of constitutional ways:
* The position of a Monarch is usually hereditary, but often with constitutional restrictions, or even considerable liberty for the incumbent or some body convening after his demise to chose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legal descendants of the state religion or even parliamentary permission.
* Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either:
**directly: through popular election; this can be made a fiction under the formula of popular [[acclamation]]; the electorate can be very selective, such as the patrician families and/or the professional corporations of a city state, or by the warriors in the case of a 'tribal' type war chief or a Roman general proclaimed by his [[Roman legion|legion]]s.
**indirectly: by members of the legislature or of a special college of [[Indirect election|electors]], as in the [[United States]]
**as an exclusive prerogative: the heads of states of the constitutive monarchies of a federation choose the head of state for the federation as a whole from among themselves, as in two modern federations: the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Malaysia]]. The [[Pope]], head of the Roman Catholic Church (as such the 'Holy See' is diplomatically recognised) and also monarchic head of state of [[Vatican City]], is chosen by [[cardinal]]s (appointed by previous Popes) under 80 years of age (in practice from among themselves) in a [[papal conclave]].
* a head of state can be entitled to designate his successor, such as [[Lord Protector of the Commonwealth]] Oliver Cromwell (succeeded by his son Richard)

A head of state may however seize power by force or revolution. This is not to be confused with the notion of an authoritarian or other totalitarian ruler, which rather concerns the oppressive nature of power once acquired, and therefore applies only if he is the true chief executive. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor [[Napoleon III of France]] and King [[Zog of Albania]]; in Spain, general [[Francisco Franco]] adopted the formal title ''Jefe del Estado'', or Chief of State, and established himself as [[regent]] for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's [[Idi Amin]] was one of several who made themselves [[President for Life]], and even later adopted an additional monarchic title.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

Another type of extra-constitutional imposition, often also changing the constitution, is by a foreign power (state or alliance), either benign or, more often, rather for its own interest, such as establishing a branch of their own or a friendly dynasty.

Apart from violent ousting, a head of state's position can also be lost in several ways:
* death (by natural causes, attentate, execution, on the battlefield or other), even in case of an unlawful killing
* expiration of the term of office under various (nearly always republican and/or elective) constitutions
* [[abdication]] or resignation, which is legally a voluntary act (though it can be the result of overpowering political or other pressure); in some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament (e.g. British King [[Edward VIII]])
* abolition of the post by constitutional change of the institutions (occasionally on the contrary, a transitory clause provides the last incumbent may end his term) or even ending the existence of the state as such
* while generally a head of state enjoys the widest form of [[inviolability]], in some states the exceptions to this includes [[impeachment]], or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative and/or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke his mandate on exceptional grounds: this may be a common crime, a political sin, an act by which he violates such provisions as the [[established religion]] (which is mandatory for the monarch)
* by similar procedure his original mandate may be declared invalid
* a [[referendum]], either provided in the constitution or simply considered the sovereign will of the people
* if the state does not enjoy full and true sovereignty, he may be validly discarded by a [[protector (title)|protector]] or suzerain liege
* serious violation of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a (disputable) valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the Security Council of the UN or certain alliances may do
* formal declaration of incapacity to rule, usually on such medical grounds as insanity or coma; this may either result in suspension (see below) or termination of his mandate

All ways of ending a head of state's term may carry a risk for the next incumbent, usually by contesting the validity of the procedure, but sometimes even after death in the case of pretenders.

===Former heads of state===
[[Image:Xuantong.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Puyi]], the last [[emperor of China]], abdicated from the throne in 1912 (and was briefly restored in 1917), but was allowed to keep his titles and [[Forbidden City|palace]] until 1924. He worked as a gardener in his later life as an ordinary Chinese citizen in Communist China.]]

A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as King [[Leopold III of Belgium]] who left the throne to his son after winning (but not in both linguistic communities of the country) a referendum; he retained a full royal household but no constitutional or representative role at all. In the case of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I Bonaparte]], the Italian principality of [[Elba]], chosen for his luxurious imprisonment after the remains of his Grande Armée (following the disastrous Russian campaign) had finally been defeated in 1814, was transformed into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his ''Cent Jours'' ('100 days' escape and reseizure of power in France) convinced the allies, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke those gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren [[Saint Helena]].

By tradition a deposed monarch who has not freely [[abdicate]]d, though no longer head of state, is allowed to use their monarchical title as a [[courtesy title]] for their lifetime. Hence, though he ceased to be [[Greece|Greek]] king in 1973 (in a disputed referendum during the [[Regime of the Colonels]]), or in 1974 (in a referendum after the reestablishment of democracy), it is still standard to refer to the deposed king as [[Constantine II of Greece]]. However none of his descendants will be entitled to be called ''King of the Hellenes'' (not ''King of Greece'') after his death. Some states dispute the international acceptance of the right of their deposed monarchs to be referred to by their former title. It remains however the generally accepted formula, with most states declining to get involved in disputes between governments and deposed monarchs and simply stating that they are doing no more than recognising tradition, not supporting claims to a defunct throne. Other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being so referred to by former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's [[diplomatic passport]].

==Statistics==
* ''Main article: [[Records of heads of state]]''

===Current===
''(as in early 2009)''
*'''World's longest serving current head of state''': King [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|Rama IX of Thailand]] (since 9 June 1946: 63 years.)
*'''World's longest serving current republican head of state:''' Leader and Guide of the Revolution [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]] of [[Libya]] (since 1 September 1969: 40 years).

===History===
*'''Oldest Head of State (elected by legislature):''' [[Sandro Pertini]] elected [[President of Italy]] in 1978. He left office in 1985, aged 88 and 9 months.
*'''Oldest Head of State elected in a popular election:''' [[Éamon de Valera]], re-elected [[President of Ireland]] aged 84 in 1966.
*'''Longest serving Head of State of the 20th century:''' King [[Sobhuza II]] of [[Swaziland]], reigned for 82 years and 254 days (1899-1983).

==See also==
*[[Head of government]]
*[[List of state leaders by year]]
*[[List of current heads of state and government]]
*[[List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence]]
*[[List of longest reigning current monarchs]]
*[[Air transports of heads of state and government]]
*[[List of heads of state educated in the United States]]
*[[Official residence]]
*''[[World Leaders]]''
*[[Political pensioner]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Sources, References and External links==
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]] in German, on Antiquity
*[http://www.rulers.org/ Rulers.org] List of rulers throughout time and places
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen] History and incumbents of states and minor polities worldwide
*[http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/regindex.html Regnal Chronologies] King lists worldwide ''(this link is not working, 9/27/08)''
*[http://4dw.net/royalark/ RoyalArk] quite elaborate on many non-European monarchies
*Westermann, ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' (in German)

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[[Category:Heads of state| ]]
[[Category:Government institutions]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]

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[[fr:Chef d'État]]
[[gl:Xefe de Estado]]
[[ko:국가 원수]]
[[hr:Poglavar države]]
[[id:Kepala negara]]
[[is:Þjóðhöfðingi]]
[[it:Capo di Stato]]
[[he:ראש מדינה]]
[[la:Dux civitatis]]
[[li:Sjtaotshouf]]
[[ln:Mokambi-ekólo]]
[[hu:Államfő]]
[[ms:Ketua negara]]
[[mn:Төрийн тэргүүн]]
[[nl:Staatshoofd]]
[[ja:元首]]
[[no:Statssjef]]
[[nn:Statsoverhovud]]
[[nrm:Chef dé l'État]]
[[pl:Głowa państwa]]
[[pt:Chefe de Estado]]
[[ru:Глава государства]]
[[scn:Capu di statu]]
[[simple:Head of state]]
[[sk:Hlava štátu]]
[[sr:Šef države]]
[[sh:Šef države]]
[[fi:Valtionpäämies]]
[[sv:Statschef]]
[[th:ประมุขแห่งรัฐ]]
[[tr:Devlet başkanı]]
[[uk:Глава держави]]
[[vec:Capo de Stato]]
[[vi:Nguyên thủ quốc gia]]
[[zh-yue:元首]]
[[zh:國家元首]]

Revision as of 01:40, 10 February 2010

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