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Germany–Israel relations

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Germany–Israel relations
Map indicating locations of Germany and Israel

Germany
Israel
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of Germany, Tel AvivEmbassy of Israel, Berlin

Israeli embassy in Berlin, Germany

Germany–Israel relations (German: Deutsch-israelische Beziehungen; Hebrew: יחסי גרמניה-ישראל) are the diplomatic relationship between the Federal Republic of Germany and the State of Israel. After the end of World War II and the Holocaust, relations gradually thawed as West Germany offered to pay reparations to Israel in 1952[1] and diplomatic relations were officially established in 1965. Nonetheless, a deep mistrust of the German people remained widespread in Israel and the Jewish diaspora communities worldwide for many years after. Relations between East Germany and Israel never materialised. Israel and Germany now maintain a "special relationship" based on shared beliefs, Western values, and a combination of historical perspectives.[2] Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's genocide of Jews in Europe during the Holocaust.[3]

German Embassy, Tel Aviv

Germany is represented in Israel through its embassy in Tel Aviv and honorary consuls in Eilat and Haifa. Israel is represented in Germany through its embassy in Berlin and its Consulate-General in Munich. Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Union for the Mediterranean.

History

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Reparations agreement

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Konrad Adenauer meeting with Zalman Shazar in Israel
Main article: Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany

In the early 1950s, the negotiations began between the Prime Minister of Israel David Ben-Gurion, the chairman of the Jewish Claims Conference Nahum Goldmann, and the Chancellor of West Germany Konrad Adenauer. Because of the sensitivity of accepting reparations, this decision was intensely debated in the Israeli Knesset. In 1952, the Reparations Agreement was signed. All in all, as of 2007 Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.[4] There were significant reconciliation efforts, particularly from religious institutions such as the German Coordinating-Council for Christian-Jewish cooperation and the Action Reconciliation Service for Peace.[5]

In 1950, Hermann Maas became the first German to be officially invited to Israel.[6] It took another fifteen years until West Germany and Israel established diplomatic relations on 12 May 1965.[7] Since then, mutual state visits regularly occur, although for many years relations were affected by the fact that Jews both in and outside Israel maintained a deep mistrust of Germany and the German people. German President Roman Herzog's first official visit outside Europe was to Israel in 1994. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak was the first foreign leader received in Berlin after the German government's relocation from Bonn in 1999. German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder visited Israel in October 2000. In 2005, the year of the 40th anniversary of bilateral diplomatic relations,[8] German President Horst Köhler and Israel's former President Moshe Katsav exchanged state visits.[9][10]

Ben-Gurion and Kurt Georg Kiesinger attending funeral of Adenauer in Bonn in 1967

The two countries established a network of contacts between parliamentary, governmental, and non-governmental organizations, as well as strategic and security ties.

On 30 January 2008, Chancellor Angela Merkel's spokesman announced that the German and Israeli cabinets would meet in Israel in March 2008, in honor of Israel's 60th anniversary celebrations. This was the first time the German cabinet met with another cabinet outside of Europe. The joint meeting was expected to become an annual occurrence.[11] On 17 March 2008, Merkel paid a three-day visit to Israel to mark Israel's 60th anniversary. Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert signed agreements on a range of projects in education, the environment and defense.[12] Merkel spoke of her support for the Jewish state during an unprecedented speech to the Knesset on 18 March 2008.[13] In January 2011, Merkel visited Israel and met with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and opposition Kadima leader Tzipi Livni.[14] In February 2011, Netanyahu called Merkel to discuss Germany's vote in the United Nations Security Council in favor of the Palestinian proposal. Merkel reportedly told Netanyahu that he had disappointed her and done nothing to advance peace.[15] To clear the air, Netanyahu was invited for a reconciliation visit to Berlin in mid-March 2011.[15]

In September, Merkel criticized Israel for construction in settlements in Jerusalem and said that the new housing permits raised doubts over Israel's readiness to negotiate with the Palestinians.[16]

Germany was one of 14 countries that voted against Palestine's UNESCO membership in October 2011, within the context of the Palestine 194 initiative. When Israel announced that building settlements would continue in response to Palestinian attempts to declare statehood unilaterally, Germany threatened to stop deliveries to Israel of submarines capable of firing nuclear warheads.[17]

Deutsche Bahn, the German national railway, in May 2011 pulled out of the high-speed railway to Jerusalem project because the line will pass in part through the West Bank. According to press reports, the German transport minister Peter Ramsauer told Deutsche Bahn's CEO that the projected rail line was "problematic from a political perspective" and violated international law. As a result, the company, which is owned by the German government, withdrew from the project. The company's decision was seen as a victory for left-wing Israeli and Palestinian activists who had waged a campaign within the context of the international Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement.[18]

In May 2019, the Bundestag passed a resolution condemning BDS as antisemitism.[19][20]

In March 2022, the newly elected Chancellor of Germany, Olaf Scholz, made his first official visit to Israel.[21]

Eichmann trial

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Adolf Eichmann (inside glass booth) is sentenced to death by the Supreme Court of Israel at the conclusion of the trial

West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer attempted to influence the trial of Nazi war criminal and Holocaust architect Adolf Eichmann in Israel because he feared that the Nazi past of some senior West German officials, including Hans Globke,[22] would come to light during the trial.[23]

Hans Globke's key position as chief of staff to Adenauer, responsible for matters of national security, made both the West German government and CIA officials wary of exposing his past, despite their full knowledge of it. This led, for instance, to the withholding of Adolf Eichmann's alias from the Israeli government and Nazi hunters in the 1950s.[24][25] The German Federal Intelligence Service (BND) had known since 1952 that Eichmann was living in Buenos Aires and working at Mercedes-Benz.[26]

Trade

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Israeli Minister of Commerce, Shalom Simhon, meeting with German officials

Germany is Israel's largest trading partner in Europe and Israel's second most important trading partner after the United States. Israeli imports from Germany amount to some USD 2.3 billion annually, while Israel is Germany's fourth largest trading partner in the North Africa/Middle East region.[2]

Germany - Israel trade in thousands USD-$ [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
 Germany Exports

 Israel Imports

 Israel Exports

 Germany Imports

Total Trade Value
2023 6515.8 2137.3 8653.1
2022 7075.7 1880.6 8956.3
2021 6560.4 1792.5 8352.9
2020 5230.2 1681.1 6911.3
2019 5582.7 1671.8 7254.5
2018 5420 1777.2 7197.2
2017 4721.8 1638.4 6360.2
2016 4069.6 1519.9 5589.5
2015 3808.3 1440.8 5249.1
2014 4652 1727.8 6379.8
2013 4667.7 1763.3 6431
2012 4621.8 1631.9 6253.7
2011 4566.5 1950 6516.5
2010 3678.8 1701.4 5380.2
2009 3361.8 1440.3 4802.1
2008 3940.5 1950.6 5891.1
2007 3484.3 1913 5397.3
2006 3201.4 1757.9 4959.3
2005 2986 1345.9 4331.9
2004 3090.2 1361 4451.2
2003 2731.1 1123.3 3854.4
2002 2347.8 1026.5 3374.3
Total 96314.4 36232.5 132546.9

Tourism

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Both Germany and Israel offer one another Visa Free or Electronic Travel Authorization (ETA) for their citizens to visit each other and for both the arrivals are considered as predominantly main group of tourist.[35][36] Israel and Germany also offering one anther citizens Working Holiday Visas.[37]

Tourism of Germans in Israel and Israelis in Germany (in thousands)[38][39][40][41]
Origin of Visitors 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008
 Germany 167.4 151.1 16.5 50.3 289 262.6 218.1 164.1 159.8 162.3 159.8 158.5 171 171.5 139.8 137.4
 Israel 234.4 241.7 72.2 45.2 291.2 314 316.1 323.6 311.4 280.6 255 237.8 203.5 187.8 155.1 141.9

Culture, science, and social programs

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Joachim Gauck in a visit in Israel with Reuven Rivlin, December 2015
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz with Israeli President Isaac Herzog in Tel Aviv, Israel, 17 October 2023

The two countries enjoy extensive scientific relations, with cooperation in science between Israeli and German universities and the development of the Minerva Society. During the visit by President Katsav, Bundestag President Wolfgang Thierse promoted the establishment of German–Israeli Youth Office – modeled on Germany's joint youth offices with France and Poland – as a tool to educate German and Israeli youth about their respective histories and the sensitivities of their relationship.[2] The German-Israel Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (GIF) was established in 1986.[42]

A number of exchange programs work between young Germans and Israelis. About 2,000 Israelis and 4,500 Germans currently participate each year in the exchange program run by Germany's Federal Ministry for the Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. The German organization Action Reconciliation (Aktion Sühnezeichen) has played a role in bringing Germans and Israelis together. Since 1961, Action Reconciliation has sent about 2,500 volunteers to work in Israeli hospitals and social welfare programs. Churches and trade unions have been active in fostering relations.

Israel places great importance on sister city relationships with German cities. Haifa has five sister cities in Germany; Tel Aviv has five and Netanya has two. Over 100 Israeli cities and local authorities have ties with Germany.[43]

According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 8% of Germans view Israel's influence as positive and 67% view it as negative, though this was about average for the European countries surveyed.[44]

In a Pew Research Center poll from 2006, Germans were asked if they sympathized more with Israel or Palestine in the Israel-Palestine conflict. 37% of Germans supported Israel against 18% who supported Palestinians. In a similar poll by Pew, conducted in 2007, 34% of the German public supported Israel, while 21% supported Palestinians.[45] In a German poll from 2009, after the Gaza War (2008–09), 30% of the Germans held Hamas accountable for the military operation, while just 13% blamed Israel.[46] A Pew research center poll conducted in 2013 found that 28% of Germans take Israel's side in the Israeli Palestinian conflict, while 26% take Palestinians' side.[47] A poll conducted by German polling institute TNS Emnid in 2014 on behalf of Bertelsmann Foundation found that 15% of Germans want their government to back Israel, while only 5% want their government to back the Palestinians. When asked whom they believe the German public supports, 33% of the Germans said Israel while 9% said the Palestinians. Israelis, who were also polled in the study, were more skeptical, as only 16% of them believed the German public supports them, against 33% who believed the Germans back Palestinians.[48]

Military cooperation

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Germany and Israel have significant and long-standing military cooperation. From 1959 to 1967 the Federal Republic of Germany was a significant supplier of military equipment and arms to Israel.[49] However, after 1965, when West Germany backed out of an agreement to sell tanks to Israel, the United States filled the order by selling 210 M48 Patton tanks. The Merkava 4 uses a German MTU MB 873 Ka-501 air-cooled diesel V12 engine produced under license. Germany has supplied Israel with Dolphin class submarines while Germany utilizes the Israeli-designed Spike Anti-Tank Missile. In 2008, it was revealed that Germany and Israel had been jointly developing a nuclear warning system, dubbed Operation Bluebird, in secret.[50]

The German-Israeli military cooperation was shrouded in secrecy for a long period, as such an entente was not seen favorably within Israel. However, this tight relationship, translated through arms deal and intelligence sharing, developed into solid trust and ultimately laid the necessary groundwork for the establishment of diplomatic ties.[51] For the first time in history, German combat aircraft landed at Ovda Airport in Israel to take part in the Blue Flag exercise in 2017.[52] Israel supplied Arrow 3 missiles to Germany during the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2023.[53]

In October 2023, following the outbreak of the Israel–Hamas war, German Defense Minister Boris Pistorius expressed full support for Israel. He told Israeli Defence Minister Yoav Gallant that "whatever we can do to support you, with material support, we will do this."[54] In 2023, Germany approved arms exports to Israel worth 326.5 million euros, or about $353.7 million.[55]

Israel–Palestine conflict

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See also: Arms embargoes on Israel § Germany, and Munich massacre
German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier and Israeli President Herzog in Jerusalem, 26 November 2023

German Chancellor Olaf Scholz condemned Hamas' actions during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and expressed his support to Israel and its right to self-defense.[56] He criticized the Palestinian Authority and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, saying that "their silence is shameful."[57] On 17 October 2023, Scholz arrived in Israel and on the same day warned Iran and Hezbollah not to get involved in the war between Israel and Hamas. He said that "Germany and Israel are united by the fact that they are democratic constitutional states. Our actions are based on law and order, even in extreme situations."[58]

According to a poll by the German Forsa Institute on behalf of the newspaper Die Welt conducted in December 2023, 45% of respondents in Germany agreed and 43% disagreed with the statement: "Israel's military action in the Gaza Strip is all in all appropriate." In the immediate aftermath of the Hamas attack on Israel, 44% of Germans said Germany has "a special obligation towards Israel." In December 2023, that number dropped to 37%.[59]

In January 2024, President Hage Geingob of Namibia called Israel's actions in Gaza "genocidal and gruesome" and sharply criticized Germany's decision to back Israel in South Africa v. Israel, saying that Germany had an "inability to draw lessons from its horrific history".[60] In February 2024 lawyers representing Palestinians in Germany filed a criminal complaint against various senior politicians including Chancellor Olaf Scholz, foreign minister Annalena Baerbock, economic minister Robert Habeck, and finance minister Christian Lindner for "aiding and abetting" the genocide in Gaza.[61] On 1 March 2024, Nicaragua initiated proceedings against Germany at the ICJ under the Genocide Convention, concerning Germany's support for Israel in the Israel–Hamas war.[62]

At the start of the war between Israel and Hamas in October 2023, Germany sold Israel weapons worth 326 million euros, which was not repeated in 2024 according to Israel's Shomrim Research Network. The German spokesman of the Ministry of Economy said that the government makes decisions on arms exports on a case-by-case basis, taking into account humanitarian law and the current situation between Israel and Hamas, the spokesman said.[63]

In 2024, Amnesty International accused the German government of "taking a one-sided stance in favor of Israel throughout the entire conflict" in the Middle East. While the German government rightly criticizes Hamas' war crimes, the government does not name Israel's actions that violate international law as such.[64][65]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "The Reparations Agreement of 1952 and the response in Israel". National Library of Israel. 16 January 2017.
  2. ^ a b c "Israel's foreign relations. The Israel-German special relationship". Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre. 23 November 2005. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2006.
  3. ^ "German Embassy. Background Papers. Germany and Israel". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
  4. ^ "Congressional Research Service: Germany's Relations with Israel: Background and Implications for German Middle East Policy, Jan 19, 2007. (page CRS-2)" (PDF).
  5. ^ Feldman, Lily (1999). "The Principle and Practice of 'Reconciliation' in German Foreign Policy: Relations with France, Israel, Poland and the Czech Republic". International Affairs. 75 (2): 333–356. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.00075. JSTOR 2623347.
  6. ^ Yad Vashem: "Hermann Maas" Archived 30 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ "Beziehungen zu Deutschland (Relations to Germany)". Federal Foreign Office. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
  8. ^ Israel and Germany to mark 40 years of diplomatic relations (Israel MFA) May 2005
  9. ^ Address by Horst Köhler, President of the Federal Republic of Germany, to the Knesset (Israel MFA) 2 February 2005
  10. ^ Israeli President Katsav: "Germany is a True Friend of Israel" (German embassy) 2 June 2005
  11. ^ "AFP: Merkel to visit Israel marking 60th anniversary". Archived from the original on 20 May 2011.
  12. ^ "Historic agreement for Israel, Germany - CNN.com". Archived from the original on 26 May 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2008.
  13. ^ "Merkel admits Germany's 'Holocaust shame'". CNN. 18 March 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2009. German Chancellor Angela Merkel told Israel of Germany's "Holocaust shame," and asserted its support for the Jewish state during an unprecedented speech to the Knesset on Tuesday.
  14. ^ "Netanyahu Heads to Germany for Reconciliation With Merkel". Haaretz. 6 April 2011.
  15. ^ a b Barak Ravid and DPA (11 April 2011). "Netanyahu heads to Germany for reconciliation with Merkel". Haaretz. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  16. ^ Barak Ravid (30 September 2011). "Germany reprimands Israel over new Jerusalem construction". Haaretz. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  17. ^ "Germany Threatens To Halt Submarine Sale to Israel". Spiegel Online International. 31 October 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  18. ^ Nir Hasson (11 May 2011). "Deutsche Bahn pulls out of TA-Jerusalem railroad". Haaretz. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  19. ^ Nasr, Joseph; Riham, Alkousaa (17 May 2019). "Germany designates BDS Israel boycott movement as anti-Semitic". Reuters. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
  20. ^ Elia, Nada (20 May 2019). "The reasons behind Germany's condemnation of BDS". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
  21. ^ "German Chancellor Olaf Schultz visits Israel for the first time". The Jerusalem Post. 2 March 2022.
  22. ^ "The senior Nazi who became postwar Germany's top civil servant". The Irish Times. 14 May 2022.
  23. ^ "West Germany's Efforts to Influence the Eichmann Trial". Der Spiegel. 15 April 2011.
  24. ^ Shane, Scott (6 June 2006). "Documents Shed Light on CIA's Use of Ex-Nazis". The New York Times.
  25. ^ Weber, Gaby (4 March 2011). "Die Entführungslegende oder: Wie kam Eichmann nach Jerusalem?". Deutschlandradio.
  26. ^ "Report: German Intelligence Knew Eichmann's Location in 1952". Haaretz. 8 January 2011.
  27. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2023". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  28. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2020". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  29. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2017". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  30. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2014". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  31. ^ "סחר החוץ של ישראל לפי ארצות בשנת 2011". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  32. ^ "סחר החוץ של ישראל לפי ארצות בשנת 2011". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  33. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2008". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  34. ^ "סחר החוץ לפי ארצות בשנת 2005". www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  35. ^ https://www.germany.travel/media/pdf_5/DZT_Zahlenflyer_GTM_2024_EN_barrierefrei.pdf
  36. ^ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1535041/israel-german-tourists-by-purpose-of-visit/
  37. ^ https://embassies.gov.il/berlin/ConsularServices/visainformation/Pages/Working-Holiday-Visum.aspx
  38. ^ https://www-genesis.destatis.de/datenbank/online/table/45412-0008#filter=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Further reading

[edit]
  • Auerbach, Yehudit. "Turning-point decisions: A cognitive-dissonance analysis of conflict reduction in Israel-West German relations." Political Psychology (1986): 533-550. online
  • De Vita, Lorena. Israelpolitik: German–Israeli relations, 1949–69 (Manchester University Press, 2020), online book review
  • Fink, Carole. West Germany and Israel: Foreign Relations, Domestic Politics, and the Cold War, 1965–1974 (2019) online book review
  • Herf, Jeffrey. Undeclared wars with Israel: East Germany and the West German far left, 1967–1989 (Cambridge University Press, 2016).
  • Hirsch, Philipp. "West German foreign policy towards the Arab states, 1967-1979: history of a disappointment" (PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2021) online
  • Lavy, George. Germany and Israel: moral debt and national interest (Routledge, 2014) online.
  • Leber, Hubert, and Dona Geyer. "Arms Exports and Holocaust Memory: Saudi Arabia, Leopard Tanks, and Bonn's Secret Israel Clause of 1982." German Yearbook of Contemporary History 6.1 (2022): 199-240. excerpt
  • Lewan, Kenneth M. "How West Germany Helped to Build Israel." Journal of Palestine Studies 4.4 (1975): 41-64.
  • Marwecki, Daniel. Germany and Israel: Whitewashing and Statebuilding (Oxford University Press, 2020) online at https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2021.1923805.
  • Von Hindenburg, Hannfried. Demonstrating Reconciliation: State and Society in West German Foreign Policy toward Israel, 1952-1965 (Berghahn, 2007) online.
[edit]
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