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Forests in Turkey

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For orchards, see Agriculture in Turkey.
Autumn in Yedigöller National Park

Forests cover almost a third of Turkey. They are almost all state-owned, and vary from temperate rainforest in the north-east to maquis in the south and west. Pine, fir, oak and beech are common.

After the glaciers retreated over ten thousand years ago woods grew to cover most of the land which is now Turkey; but over thousands of years people cut down many trees. The country is slowly reforesting, which is good both for its wildlife, and to absorb carbon to help limit climate change.

As of the mid-2020s the main forest income is from wood, and they are also important for recreation. But almost half the forest is badly degraded; and they are threatened by drought, wildfire, mining, and pests and diseases.

Definition and cover

[edit]

In 2023, forests covered about 30% of the country,[1]: 9  almost the global average. Legally a piece of woodland of less than three hectares (ha) is not forest.[2]: 3  However, the national greenhouse gas inventory uses the Food and Agriculture Organization definition: forests must cover 1 ha or more and be at least 5m high. There are forest–subcategories of coniferous, deciduous, mixed, and ‘other forested land’ which has a crown closure between 1 and 10 percent.[3]: 299, 301  Forests with a crown closure of over 10% are classed as productive.[3]: 292  Trees grown for crops (such as Turkey’s hazelnuts) are not classified as forests.[3]: 301  A 2024 study said that deforestation caused by other uses of forest land (such as mining) is not reflected in official statistics (the land may be leased for up to 49 years but in theory would return to forest so is still officially forest land) and that these uses cause forest degradation by fragmentation.[4] As of 2024 almost half of forest was heavily degraded,[5] that is with less than 10% canopy cover.: 64 [6] In 2024 preparations for a new inventory continued,[7] and the Turkish National Forestry Program (2024-2043) is being prepared.[1] Since a change to the Forestry Law in 2018 the president has been able to reclassify land as not forest.[8]

History

[edit]
Painting in Bursa Forestry Museum showing Atatürk in woods

As Turkeyʼs glaciers almost all melted over ten thousand years ago more oak (both deciduous, such as Turkey oak, and evergreen oak[9]) grew in Central Anatolia.[10] Ten thousand years ago, Anatolia was mostly forested,[11] but forest cover before the formation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 is not well documented.[12] However that period and prehistory can be studied from tree rings, palynology (ancient particles such as pollen) and charcoal.[10]: 214 

Deforestation had increased sharply by 4000 BC, when wood was used for fuel and construction, for example in the settlement of Çatalhöyük.[10]: 214  In the Bronze Age at around 3500 BC humans began to significantly impact forests, for example by transporting wood from remote areas.[10]: 215  In the last two thousand years, especially in the last five hundred, much old growth forest was cut down. Wooden ships were built, sometimes armies in war burnt forests to expose their enemies, and forests were cleared for agriculture.[10]: 214  As well as oak, there were juniper and Black pine (Pinus nigra).[10]: 215  Turkish sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis) was formerly widespread, but is now restricted to Southwest Anatolia.[13] From sources such as Theophrastus we know that Ancient Mediterranean civilisations used wood as a fuel in houses, bakeries, bathhouses, and for metalwork. Cedar was used for temples, such as at Ephesus and Artemis. Chestnut and fir were used for charcoal.[10]: 217  The Ottoman navy built ships from timber from the coasts of the Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas.[10]: 214  But armies used more wood than navies.[10]: 218 

As part of late Ottoman Empire reforms a Forest Charter was issued in 1840 and the Forestry Directorate established, but according to one study it was too top-down and lacked public engagement.[14] After the formation of the republic in the 1920s forestry and wood production were increased.[15] Forests were nationalised in 1938,[16] and the first large afforestation project in Turkey was in 1939.[17]

Old-growth forest

[edit]

There are old-growth forests and over 500 taxa of trees and shrubs in the country.[10] Old-growth-forests are defined as “A primary or natural/near natural forest area containing tree species, whose existence can be traced back from hundreds of years to neolithic ages.” Degraded ancient woodlands are sometimes very scattered.[10]: 219  According to a 2018 study by Turkish and British academics, both local support and national policy are needed to protect and rehabilitate them.[10]: 213  Heritage trees include the İnkaya Plane Tree,[18] and some are called natural monuments.

Climate and forests

[edit]

Although forests cover 23 million (almost 30%)[19] of Turkey's 78 million ha, 3 million ha have less than 10% crown cover,[3]: 301  and almost 10 million ha were degraded forest as of 2020.[20]: 63  Almost all forests are state owned and managed by the General Directorate of Forestry [tr](GDF)[17] of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry;[21] they plan to increase the amount of forests so as to remove more carbon from the atmosphere, and thus reabsorb a little more of Turkey’s greenhouse gas emissions.[1]: 27  The GDF has 28 Regional Directorates of Forestry and 12 Forestry Research Institutes.[5] The Turkish constitution prohibits existing forests being transferred from state ownership; but state land is sometimes leased for private reforestation.[22] Reforestation by the private sector varies around five thousand ha a year.[1]: table 24  A 2020 study suggested that incentives for private afforestation should be increased.[22] There is a strategic plan for adaptation to climate change,[23] and Turkey is taking part in the Bonn Challenge.[24] The Turkish Industry and Business Association (TÜSİAD) recommends that afforestation should be better planned, carbon offsets and credits should be available, and carbon storage should be included in the Forest Law.[25]: 18 

Snow, and to a lesser extent rain, has decreased.[25]: 18  TÜSİAD predicts a 90% reduction in habitats suitable for Black pine.[25]: 18 TÜSİAD says that the mega forest fires that burned in 2021, and the shrinkage and even drying of wetlands in Central Anatolia are the most obvious examples of aridification. The severity of drought and the area affected will increase with the effects of climate change; it is predicted that this will be bad for forests. In a climate that becomes more arid efforts to increase carbon sink areas, such as afforestation and carbon sequestration, will become less efficient.[25]: 17  Drought is a threat both directly and by encouraging bark beetles.[26]

Distribution of forests

[edit]
See also: Anatolia § Ecoregions
Giresun Province in the Black Sea Region, which is the most forested region.[27]

Forests are mainly on the mountain ranges parallel to the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts.[28] 4% of forests are coppice while the rest are high forests.[1]: 9  and there are six million ha of maquis, mostly in the south and west.[29] High rainfall in the eastern Black Sea Region sustains temperate rainforest.[30] 15% of forest area is in protected areas and the rest in managed forest.[6]: 63 

Eight ecoregions are officially defined,[3]: 291  all of which contain woodland: Euxine-Colchic deciduous forest; North Anatolian deciduous, coniferous and mixed; Mediterranean coastal zone deciduous and coniferous; Mediterranean Mountain zone; Aegean Inland deciduous and coniferous; Central Anatolian steppe; East Anatolian deciduous; and East Anatolian steppe.[31] However others include Balkan mixed forests and Caucasus mixed forests,[5] and the World Wide Fund for Nature lists 13 ecozones with woodland. Almost all the forests are in a temperate climate.[3]: 305 

A quarter of the Black Sea Region is forested, while other regions with over 10% forest include Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean and East Anatolia.[27] Wildfires are increasing in some regions due to climate change in Turkey.[32] Because of droughts in 2008, 2020 and 2021, more forests burned in those years.[33]

Large areas of forest can be inventoried by satellite to hectare scale,[3]: 288 and small areas by lidar.[34] The national “EVANIS” database uses the national legal definition of forest and is very accurate for stands, but not as good at estimating how much carbon dioxide is absorbed by land use, land-use change, and forestry.[3]: 293 

Most forests are natural and semi-natural, with some being on mountains and having a lot of biodiversity. hosting most species of the flora and fauna of Turkey,[12] including flagship species such as Anatolian leopards.[35][36] Deciduous forests are along the Black Sea. Species in various ecoregions in Turkey, namely Irano-Turanion, Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian, belong to about 800 woody taxa. As of 2020 the predominant species are oak (Quercus spp. 29%), Turkish pine (Pinus brutia 23%), black pine (Pinus nigra 18%), Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis 8%), European red pine (Pinus silvestris 6%), Juniper (Juniperus spp. 6%), Fir (Abies spp. 2%), Caucasian Spruce (Picea orientalis 2%), Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani 2%): other species include Stone pine (Pinus pinea), Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Alder (Alnus spp.), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus).[37]: 29 

The 2023 GDF activity report says “In addition, with the aim of planning and implementing forest areas in an organized and sustainable manner under the name of "Nation Forest" with a new recreation approach, Amasya National Forest, Izmir National Forest, Kastamonu National Forest, Kayseri National Forest, Mersin National Forest, Kocaeli National Forest, Batman National Forest. Forest, Manisa National Forest and Siirt National Forest facilities were realized.”,[1]: 43  but what this means in practice is unclear.

List of forests

[edit]
Name Province Area (sq km)
Acarlar Floodplain Forest Sakarya 25
Akbelen Forest Muğla 7
Belgrad Forest Istanbul 55
Çığlıkara Nature Reserve Antalya 16
Cyprus Memorial Forest in Silifke Mersin 0.09
İğneada Floodplain Forests National Park Kırklareli 32
Karabucak Forest Mersin 12

Ecology

[edit]

Over half the volume of forest is from the three species of Turkish pine, Black pine and Scots pine.[6]: 62  Brown bears sometimes leave the forest and enter urban areas - there is a fine for shooting them.[38]

Benefits of forests

[edit]

Forests are the country's main carbon sink, especially in western Turkey where most are living biomass rather than soil organic carbon.[39] Forests are estimated to have absorbed 34 million tonnes of the 600 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey in 2021, less than previous years due to both forest fires and a lot of wood being harvested.[3]: 287  The World Bank says that, "Increasing forest cover and improving forest health can help prevent soil erosion and landslides and reduce the impacts of floods."[40] In the mid-2020s the bank is supporting a project to make the forests more resilient against climate change in Turkey.[41] Eight million ha of forests are certified by the Forest Stewardship Council.[42]: 4 

Detail of an old house in Çengelköy in Istanbul
Road sign
Foreigners visiting Belgrad Forest in Istanbul in the 1920s

Some forests, such as Belgrad Forest in Istanbul, are important for recreation and tourism. Some national parks and nature parks of Turkey contain forest, and there is an ecotourism plan to 2025.[43] There are forest schools[44] and preschooling.[45]

As of the early 2020s, there is no regulation encouraging more use of wood in buildings[46] instead of concrete and steel, which are carbon-intensive.[47] And there is no standard life-cycle assessment of the sustainability of buildings.[48] There are no plans to reduce firewood burning,[47] although it emits soot, which is bad for health.[49]

Forest products

[edit]
Turkish pine forestry in the Taurus Mountains
Transporting firewood in the early 21st century

About half of forest is directly part of the economy, with most of the rest watershed and erosion control.[5] 29 million m3 of standing trees,[note 1] 23 million m3 industrial wood, and five million steres of firewood were sold in 2023.[1]: 42  As of 2023, wood production is the main income from forests.[42] 25 million m3 of wood was harvested in 2022, including 9 million m3 of timber, 9 million m3 of fibre-chip wood, 5 million m3 of paper wood and 1 million m3 of industry wood.[42]: 13  Most wood is used to make board.[5] Lidar can estimate wood volume.[50]: 34 

70% of timber is used in construction, 20% is used in furniture and 10% is used in packaging and other industries. Timber consumption per person per year is about 0.08 m3.[51] Feebates for landowners have been suggested, especially for land at the agriculture/forest boundary: [CO2 rental price] × [carbon storage on their land in a baseline period ─ stored carbon in the current period].[50]: 33–34 

Non-timber forest products include resin, acorns, mushrooms, truffles, and honey.[1]: 43  Boar hunting (sometimes in fields rather than forest) deer hunting and hunting some other species,[52][53] is regulated by the ministry.[54]

The value of exports of wood products is more than twice that of imports, and the value of both exports and imports increased from 2020 to 2022.[42]: 3  In 2022 the country from which the most wood products were imported was Russia (over 20%) and that to which the most was exported was Iraq (about 10%).[55]

Threats

[edit]
See also: Environmental issues in Turkey
Marmaris forest fire in 2021

Some non-native insects, such as scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha),[56] are pests.[57] Wildfires in Turkey, such as in 2021, affect the economy, such as tourism.[58] Sometimes the public is banned from entering forests in summer, to try to prevent fires.[59] The 2021 mega fires are estimated to have emitted 10 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from 135 million ha burnt,[3]: 366  but over years (at least up to the mid-2020s) the area of forest gain tended to be more than that burnt.[60] The World Bank is helping to increase resilience to wildfires.[41] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion said that from 2012 to 2022, too many licenses were being granted for non-forest uses, such as mining.[61] However in 2024 extension of coal mining in Akbelen Forest was eventually refused after protests,[62] and a 2020 study said that 2010s legislation had made mining in forests more sustainable.[63] Satellites such as Landsat and Sentinel can be used to study fire damage.[64] As of 2021 the Istanbul northern forest is threatened by urban growth.[65] Recreation projects can also be controversial.[66]

Regeneration and reforestation

[edit]
See also: Forest dynamics

As of 2022, how much of the Central Anatolian steppe was originally forested was not certain, but in some lower regions, it is thought that it has always been steppe and too dry for trees due to rain shadows of mountains.[67] A 2006 study suggested that 50 million ha (64%) of land was potential forest.[68]: 344  For steppe, it has been suggested that overgrazing should be stopped, but that full recovery to woodland should be prevented so as to have both steppe and woodland wildlife.[69]

Regeneration of ancient woodland (also called old-growth forest) may be possible, if local needs are properly considered.[10]: 236  As some reforestation attempts have suffered due to a lack of water, desalination has been suggested.[70] Coppices have become high forests,[3]: 305  and grassland in and around forest have become forests.[3]: 308  Anatolian black pine is commonly used for reforestation.[71] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an involved NGO.[72] The Foresters' Association of Turkey, established in 1924, is one of the country’s oldest civil society organisations.[73] It takes twenty years to convert to forest.[3]: 311  Salt, gypsum and very alkali ground can hinder forest growth.[74] Although companies donate some saplings memorial forests, such as Cyprus Memorial Forest in Silifke, are not usually corporate forests.[75] Belts and lines of trees are planted to combat wind erosion.[76]

Turkey’s 12th development plan (2024 to 2028) says that “carbon sink areas will be increased by improving the adaptation capability of our forests to climate change.“[77]: 51 

People and culture

[edit]
See also: Turkish_folklore § Tree_worship
Wish tree in late 20th century Cappadocia

Regulations say that the nearest “forest villagers” must do all forestry work. However, younger people are moving to towns and cities, and new equipment is expensive for the villagers.[5] As of 2024 there are 25 thousand forest rangers.[78] 1.2 billion lira (49,000,000 USD) support was provided to eleven thousand families in 2023.[1]: 68 

Trees and forest are important in Turkish culture.[79] Turkish people include Tahtacı, who may have descended from Ağaçeri and are documented in the short documentary Fatma of the Forest. Turkic mythology may have included the tree of life Ulukayın, and forest spirits archura and äbädä.[80]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ dikili damga has been mistranslated as “sewn stamp” [sic] but perhaps means timber mark.

References

[edit]
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