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'''Earth science''' (also known as '''geoscience''', '''the geosciences''' or '''the Earth Sciences'''), is an all-embracing term for the [[science]]s related to the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]]<ref>[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=earth%20science Wordnet Search: Earth science]</ref>. It is arguably a special case in [[planetary science]], the Earth being the only known [[life]]-bearing planet. There are both [[reductionist]] and [[holism|holistic]] approaches to Earth science. There are four major [[discipline]]s in earth sciences, namely [[geography]], [[geology]], [[geophysics]] and [[geodesy]]. These major disciplines use [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[chronology]] and [[mathematics]] to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or ''[[Earth's spheres|spheres]]'' of the Earth system. |
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== Earth's spheres == |
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Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the [[lithosphere]], the [[hydrosphere]], the [[atmosphere]], and the [[biosphere]]<ref name="wheeling"> |
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[http://www2.cet.edu/ete/hilk4/intro/spheres.html Earth's Spheres]. ©1997-2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved [[November 11]] [[2007]]. |
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</ref>; these correspond to [[Rock (geology)|rocks]], [[water]], [[air]], and [[life]]. Some practitioners include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, the [[cryosphere]] (corresponding to [[ice]]) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the [[pedosphere]] (corresponding to [[soil]]) as an active and intermixed sphere. |
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[[Image:Limu o Pele.jpg|thumb|Lava flows from the [[Kīlauea]] volcano into the ocean on the [[Hawaii (Island)|Island of Hawaii]].]] |
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The following [[fields of science]] are generally categorised within the geosciences: |
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* [[Geology]] describes the [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] parts of the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] (or [[lithosphere]]) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are [[mineralogy]] and [[petrology]], [[geochemistry]], [[geomorphology]], [[paleontology]], [[stratigraphy]], [[Structural geology|structural geology]], [[engineering geology]] and [[sedimentology]]<ref>Adams 20</ref><ref name="smith 5">Smith 5</ref>. |
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* [[Geophysics]] and [[Geodesy]] investigate the [[figure of the Earth]], its reaction to forces and its [[magnetic field|magnetic]] and [[gravity field]]s{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. Geophysicists explore the [[Earth's core]] and [[Earth's mantle|mantle]] as well as the [[Plate tectonics|tectonic]] and [[Seismology|seismic]] activity of the lithosphere<ref name="smith 5"/><ref>[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=geodesy Wordnet Search: Geodesy]</ref><ref>[http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/geodesy/welcome.html NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy]</ref>. |
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* [[Soil science]] covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or [[pedosphere]])<ref>[http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/ped/pedosph.htm Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub]</ref>. Major subdisciplines include [[edaphology]] and [[Pedology (soil study)|pedology]]<ref>[http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html Duane Gardiner, Lecture: Why Study Soils? excerpted from Miller, R.W. & D.T. Gardiner, 1998. Soils in our Environment, 8th Edition]</ref>. |
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* [[Oceanography]] and [[hydrology]] (includes [[limnology]]) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the [[water]]y parts of the Earth (or [[hydrosphere]]). Major subdisciplines include [[hydrogeology]] and [[Physical oceanography|physical]], [[Chemical oceanography|chemical]], and [[Marine biology|biological]] oceanography{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. |
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* [[Glaciology]] covers the [[ice|icy]] parts of the Earth (or [[cryosphere]]). |
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* [[Atmospheric sciences]] cover the [[gas]]eous parts of the Earth (or [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]) between the surface and the [[exosphere]] (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines are [[meteorology]], [[climatology]], [[atmospheric chemistry]] and [[atmospheric physics]]. |
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* A very important linking sphere is the biosphere, the study of which is [[biology]]. The biosphere consists of all forms of [[life]], from [[Microorganism|single-celled organisms]] to [[Pine|pine trees]] to [[Human|people]]. The interactions of Earth's other spheres - lithosphere/geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and/or cryosphere and pedosphere - create the conditions that can support life. |
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==Earth's interior== |
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[[Image:Volcano q.jpg|thumb|A [[volcano]] is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth`s formation.<ref>Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, London, 2000</ref>]] |
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[[Plate tectonics]], [[mountain|mountain range]]s, [[volcano]]es, and [[earthquake]]s are [[Geology|geological phenomena]] that can be explained in terms of [[energy transformation]]s in the [[Earth's crust]].<ref>[http://okfirst.ocs.ou.edu/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html Earth's Energy Budget]</ref> |
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Beneath the earth's [[lithosphere|crust]] lies the [[Earth's mantle|mantle]] which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of [[magma]] which is in a state of semi-perpetual [[wiktionary:convection|convection]]. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as [[plate tectonics]].<ref>Simison par. 7</ref><ref name="adams tectonics">Adams 94,95,100,102</ref><ref>Smith 13-17,218,G-6</ref><ref name="oldroyd tectonics">Oldroyd 101,103,104</ref> |
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Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the earth resurfaces itself. Through a process called ''spreading ridges'' (or [[seafloor spreading]]), the earth creates new crust by allowing magma underneath the lithosphere to come to the surface where it cools and solidifies--becoming new crust, and through a process called [[subduction]], excess crust is pushed underground--beneath the rest of the lithosphere--where it comes into contact with magma and melts--rejoining the mantle from which it originally came.<ref name="adams tectonics"/><ref name="oldroyd tectonics"/><ref>Smith 327</ref> |
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Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called ''divergent boundaries'', and areas of the crust where it is brought back into the earth are called ''convergent boundaries''.<ref>Smith 316,323-325</ref><ref>There is another type of boundary called a [[transform boundary]] where plates slide in opposite directions but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed (Smith 331).</ref> [[Earthquakes]] result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near covergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.<ref name="smith subduction">Smith 325,326,329</ref> |
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[[Volcanoes]] result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the [[Asthenosphere]] melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface--giving birth to volcanoes.<ref name="adams tectonics"/><ref name="smith subduction"/> |
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== Earth's electromagnet == |
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<gallery> |
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Image:Electromagnetism.svg|Current flowing around an iron core creates an electromagnet. |
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Image:CampoMagnetico.png|Earth is an electromagnet. |
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</gallery> |
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<!-- |
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Image:Dipole_field.jpg|Earth is an electromagnet. |
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--> |
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An [[electromagnet]] is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft-iron core.<ref>American 576</ref> The earth has a soft iron [[Earth core|core]] surrounded by semi-liquid materials from the mantle that move in continuous currents around the core;<ref>The earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core (Oldroyd 160).</ref> therefore, the earth is an [[Wiktionary:electromagnet|electromagnet]]. This is referred to as the [[dynamo theory]] of earth's magnetism.<ref name="oldroyd core">Oldroyd 160</ref><ref name="dynamo"> |
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{{cite web |
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|url=http://setiathome.berkeley.edu/~pauld/etc/210BPaper.pdf |
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|title=Dynamo Theory and Earth's Magnetic Field. |
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|author=Demorest, Paul |
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|date=2001-05-21 |
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|accessdate=2007-11-17 |
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}} |
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</ref> The fact that earth is an electromagnet helps with the earth's maintenance of an atmosphere suitable for life. |
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== Atmosphere == |
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[[Image:Magnetosphere rendition.jpg|thumb|The [[magnetosphere]] shields the surface of the Earth from the charged particles of the [[solar wind]]. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side. (Image not to scale.)]] |
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The earth is blanketed by an [[atmosphere]] consisting of 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 1% Argon.<ref name="adams atmosphere">Adams 107-108</ref> The atmosphere has five layers: [[troposphere]], [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], [[thermosphere]], and [[exosphere]]; and 75% of the atmosphere's gases are in the bottom-most layer, the troposphere.<ref name="adams atmosphere"/> |
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The [[magnetic field]] created by [[Earth's mantle|mantle's]] internal motions produces the [[magnetosphere]] which protects the earth's atmosphere from the solar wind.<ref>Adams 21-22</ref> It is theorized that the solar wind would strip away earth's atmosphere in a few million years were it not for the earth's electromagnet.{{fact|date=November 2007}} And since earth is [[Age of the earth|4.5 billion]] years old,<ref name="age earth">Smith 183</ref> earth would not have an atmosphere by now if there were no magnetosphere. |
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The atmosphere is composed of 78% [[nitrogen]] and 21% [[oxygen]]. The remaining one percent contains small amounts of other gases including CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapors.<ref name="adams atmosphere"/> Water vapors and CO<sub>2</sub> allow the earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the sun's energy through a phenomenon called the [[greenhouse effect]].<ref>American 770</ref> This allows earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. |
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In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the earth's surface from [[cosmic rays]]. Note that the level of protection is high enough to prevent cosmic rays from destroying all life on Earth, yet low enough to aid the [[mutations]] that have an important role in pushing forward [[evolution|diversity]] in the biosphere.{{fact|date=November 2007}} |
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==Methodology== |
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Like all other scientists, Earth scientists apply the [[scientific method]]. They formulate [[hypotheses]] after observing events and gathering data about natural phenomena, and then they test hypotheses from such data. |
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A contemporary idea within earth science is [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. Uniformitarianism says that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed".{{fact|date=June 2008}} Simply stated, this means that features of the Earth can be explained by the actions of gradual processes operating over long periods of time; for example, a mountain need not be thought of as having been created in a moment, but instead it may be seen as the result of continuous subduction, causing magma to rise and form continental volcanic arcs. |
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== Partial list of the major Earth Science topics == <!-- [[List of academic disciplines]] links here --> |
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===Atmosphere=== |
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* [[Atmospheric chemistry]] |
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* [[Climatology]] |
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* [[Meteorology]] |
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** [[Hydrometeorology]] |
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* [[Paleoclimatology]] |
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===Biosphere=== |
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* [[Biogeography]] |
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* [[Paleontology]] |
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** [[Palynology]] |
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** [[Micropaleontology]] |
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* [[Geomicrobiology]] |
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===Hydrosphere=== |
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* [[Hydrology]] |
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** [[Limnology]] |
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* [[Hydrogeology]] |
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* [[Oceanography]] |
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** [[Chemical oceanography]] |
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** [[Marine biology]] |
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** [[Marine geology]] |
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** [[Paleoceanography]] |
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** [[Physical oceanography]] |
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=== Lithosphere or geosphere=== |
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* [[Geology]] |
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** [[Economic geology]] |
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** [[Engineering geology]] |
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** [[Environmental geology]] |
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** [[Historical geology]] |
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*** [[Glaciology]] |
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*** [[Quaternary geology]] |
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** [[Planetary geology]] |
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** [[Sedimentology]] |
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** [[Stratigraphy]] |
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** [[Structural geology]] |
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* [[Geochemistry]] |
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* [[Geography]] |
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** [[Physical geography]] |
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* [[Geomorphology]] |
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* [[Geophysics]] |
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** [[Geochronology]] |
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** [[Geodynamics]] (see also [[Tectonics]]) |
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** [[Geomagnetic]]s |
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** [[Gravimetry]] (also part of [[Geodesy]]) |
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** [[Seismology]] |
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* [[Hydrogeology]] |
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* [[Mineralogy]] |
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** [[Crystallography]] |
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** [[Gemology]] |
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* [[Petrology]] |
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* [[Speleology]] |
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* [[Volcanology]] |
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===Pedosphere=== |
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* [[Soil science]] |
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** [[Edaphology]] |
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** [[Pedology (soil study)|Pedology]] |
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===Systems=== |
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* [[Environmental science]] |
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* [[Geography]] |
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** [[Human geography]] |
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** [[Physical geography]] |
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* [[Gaia hypothesis]] |
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===Others=== <!--- does not fit elsewere---> |
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* [[Cartography]] |
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* [[Geoinformatics]] ([[GIS]]) |
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* [[Geostatistics]] |
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* [[Geodesy]] and [[Surveying]] |
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* [[NASA Earth Science Enterprise]] |
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== Notes and references == |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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== References == |
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<!-- These should be sorted in alphabetical order |
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by the letters that display first in each listing. --> |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science |
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|first=Simon |
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|last=Adams |
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|coauthors=David Lambert |
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|publisher=Chelsea House |
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|location=New York NY 10001 |
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|date=2006 |
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|pages=pp. 20 |
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|isbn=0-8160-6164-5 |
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|ids=earth science |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=American Heritage dictionary of the English language |
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|edition=4th edition |
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|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company |
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|location=222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116 |
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|isbn=0-395-82517-2 |
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|pages=pp. 572, 770 |
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|ids=american |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |
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|url=http://okfirst.mesonet.org/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html |
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|title=Earth's Energy Budget |
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|date=1996-2004 |
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|accessdate=2007-11-17 |
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|publisher=Oklahoma Climatological Survey |
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|id=okfirst |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |
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|url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=earth%20science |
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|title=WordNet Search 3.0 |
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|accessdate=2007-11-10 |
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|work=WordNet a lexical database for the English language |
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|publisher=Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory /221 Nassau St./ Princeton, NJ 08542 |
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|first=George A. |
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|last=Miller |
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|coauthors=Christiane Fellbaum, and Randee Tengi, and Pamela Wakefield, and Rajesh Poddar, and Helen Langone, and Benjamin Haskell |
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|date=2006 |
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|id=wordnet:earth science |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |
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|url=http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/geodesy/welcome.html |
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|title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy |
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|date=2005-03-08 |
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|accessdate=2007-11-17 |
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|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |
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|id=oceanservice |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Earth Cycles: A historical prespective |
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|first=David |
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|last=Oldroyd |
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|publisher=Greenwood Press |
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|location=Westport, Connicticut |
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|date=2006 |
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|isbn=0-313-33229-0 |
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|ids=earth cycles |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Earth Science: Decade by Decade |
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|first=Christina |
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|last=Reed |
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|publisher=Facts on File |
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|location=New York, NY |
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|date=2008 |
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|isbn=978-0816055333 |
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|ids=earth-science history during the 20th century |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |
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|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tecmech.html |
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|title=The mechanism behind plate tectonics |
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|date=2007-02-05 |
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|accessdate=2007-11-17 |
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|author=Simison, W. Brian |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=How Does the Earth Work? |
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|subtitle=Physical Geology ''and the'' Process of Science |
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|first=Gary A. |
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|last=Smith |
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|coauthors=Aurora Pun |
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|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |
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|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 |
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|date=2006 |
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|pages=pp. 5 |
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|isbn=0-13-034129-0 |
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|ids=how does |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
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* Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth Science, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0130353900 |
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* Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsvier, ISBN 978-0444889072 |
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* Yang X. S., 2008. Mathematical Modelling for Earth Sciences, Dunedin Academic Press, ISBN 978-1903765920 |
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* Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199211944 |
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==See also== |
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* [[Earth sciences graphics software]] |
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* [[Environmental geoscience]] |
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* [[List of basic earth science topics]] |
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* [[List of geoscience organizations]] |
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* [[Structure of the Earth]] |
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* [[Glossary of geology terms]] |
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{{Earth science}} |
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{{Natural sciences-footer}} |
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{{Nature nav}} |
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