Jump to content

Lebanese Druze

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Druze people in Lebanon)
Lebanese Druze
Distribution of Druze voters in Lebanon by municipality
Languages
Vernacular:
Lebanese Arabic
Religion
Druze
Part of a series of articles on
Lebanese people
Emblem of Lebanon
(Lebanese cedar)
Lebanese people
Communities
Native communities outside of Lebanon:

Lebanese diaspora:

Europe

Overseas

Middle East

Culture
History
Language
Foreign
French
French language in Lebanon
English
Politics
flag Lebanon portal

The Lebanese Druze (Arabic: دروز لبنان, romanized: durūz lubnān) are an ethnoreligious group[1] constituting about 5.2 percent[2] of the population of Lebanon. They follow the Druze faith, which is an esoteric Abrahamic religion originating from the Near East. They identify as unitarians (Arabic: موحدين, romanized: muwaḥḥidīn).[3]

There are estimated to be fewer than 1 million Druze worldwide.[4] The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or "believers in one God," are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut.[2] Lebanon has the world's second-largest Druze population, after Syria.

Under the Lebanese political division (Parliament of Lebanon Seat Allocation), the Druze community is designated as one of the five Lebanese Muslim communities in Lebanon (Sunni, Shia, Druze, Alawi, and Ismaili), although the Druze are no longer considered formally Muslim.[5][6][7] Lebanon's constitution was intended to guarantee political representation for each of the nation's ethno-religious groups.[8]

Wadi al-Taym is generally considered the "birthplace of the Druze faith".[9] The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[10] Under the terms of an unwritten agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the Chief of the General Staff must be a Druze.[11]

History

[edit]
An estimate of the distribution of Lebanon's main religious groups, 1991, based on a map by GlobalSecurity.org
A Druze woman wearing a tantour during the 1870s in Chouf, Lebanon
Christian Church and Druze Khalwa in Shuf Mountains.

The Druze faith does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, such as fasting during the month of Ramadan, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca.[12][13] The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism and other philosophies.

The Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid "People of Unitarianism or Monotheism" or "al-Muwaḥḥidūn."

"The Druze follow a lifestyle of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into, the religion. When Druze live among people of other religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion and their own safety. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are. This system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging."[12]

The Tanukhids inaugurated the Druze community in Lebanon when most of them accepted and adopted the new message that was being preached in the 11th century, due to their leadership's close ties with the Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[14]

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by harmony and coexistence,[15][16][17][18] with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[19][20]

Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution by the Muslims.[21][22][23] The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili. Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims,[24][25][26] and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.[27] The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Fatimid Caliphate,[28] Sunni Ottoman Empire,[29] and Egypt Eyalet.[30][31] The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam.[32] Those were no ordinary killings in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative.[33]

The Druze community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state, and although they are a minority, they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were predominantly in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance represented by the PLO. Most of the community supported the Progressive Socialist Party formed by their leader Kamal Jumblatt, and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against the Lebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians. After the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his son Walid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party. He played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning the Mountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990.

In August 2001, Maronite Catholic Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly Druze Chouf region of Mount Lebanon and visited Mukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who fought a bloody war in 1983–84, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal.[34]

It was a cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution in 2005. Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected. The BBC describes Jumblatt as "the smartest leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty".[35] The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party, led by Prince Talal Arslan, the son of Lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan.

On May 10, 2008, Hezbollah forces clashed with Druze militias, resulting in casualties on both sides.[36] The clashes started in Aytat, near Kayfoun, and soon expanded to cover many spots in Mount Lebanon, including Baysur, Shuweifat and Aley. Most of the fighting was concentrated on Hill 888. After negotiations a ceasefire was called in from outside the country before Hezbollah could call in artillery support. Releases from Hezbollah leaders in 2016 stated that bombing the mountain with close-range artillery from the South and longer-ranged artillery from Syria were both an option and greatly considered.[37]

A number of the Druze embraced Christianity, such as some of Shihab dynasty members,[38] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45] During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant missionaries established schools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting to Protestant Christianity;[46] yet they did not succeed in converting Druze to Christianity en masse.

On the other hand, many Druze immigrants to the United States have converted to Protestantism, becoming communicants of the Presbyterian or Methodist churches. This allowd them to keep low profiles in small towns.[47][48]

Demographics

[edit]
Prophet Job shrine in Niha village.[49]

According to scholar Colbert C. Held of University of Nebraska, Lincoln, the number of Druze people worldwide is around one million, with about 45% to 50% in Syria, 35% to 40% in Lebanon, and less than 10% in Israel.[50]

The Druze are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut.[2] The Lebanese Druze are estimated to constitute 5.2 percent of Lebanon's population.[2] They live in 136 villages in Hasbaya, Rashaya, Chouf, Aley, Marjeyoun and Beirut,[51] and they constitute the majority of the population Aley, Baakleen, Hasbaya and Rashaya.[51] The Druze make up more than half of the population of the Aley District, and they constitute about a third of the residents of the Rachaya District, and they constitute about the quarter of residents of the Chouf District and the Matn District.[52]

Intercommunal relationships

[edit]

Relationship with Lebanese Christians

[edit]
Main article: Christianity and Druze
The icon of Saidet et Tallé, also known as "the Virgin of the Druze," is venerated by both the Druze and Christian communities. This veneration reflects the long-standing interfaith harmony in Lebanon.[53]

Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world.[54] The Druzite and Maronite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon.[55] Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Mount Lebanon (Aley District, Baabda District, and Chouf District), Rashaya District, Hasbaya, Matn District, and Marjeyoun District.[56]

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by harmony and coexistence.[57][58][59][18] Historian Ray Jabre Mouawad finds religious symbiosis between Druze and Christians in Mount Lebanon during the Ottoman period. Numerous cultural interactions occurred in Mount Lebanon, producing overlapped symbolism, veneration of shared saints, and use of common words to designate God, the traces of which are discovered in the palaces and mausoleums of Druze lords, as well as in Maronite and Greek Orthodox churches.[60]

Druze and Christians in Lebanon celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as Christmas, Maundy Thursday and Easter, especially before and after the Lebanese Civil War.[61] Thursday of the Dead is a feast day shared by Christians and Druze in the Lebanon.[62] It falls sometime between the Easter Sundays of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian traditions. It is a day on which the souls of the dead are honoured. A popular day among women in the region,[63] it underscores the shared culture between Arab Christians and Druze in Lebanon.[63] The baptism of children in accordance with Christian custom was usually in large, well-known Lebanese Druze families.[64] In the period of Egyptian rule in the Levant in the 1830s, many Druze converted to Christianity to avoid enlistment into the Egyptian army,[64] according to historian Aharon Layish there is also explicit evidence of Druze in Lebanon under the Ottoman rule posing as Christians for practical reasons.[64]

Due to the Christian influence on the Druze faith, two Christian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and Saint Elijah.[65] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druze and Christians in central Mount Lebanon a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either one of them.[65] According to Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druze admire the two saints for their bravery: Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them.[65] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druze were attracted to warrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[65]

Notable people

[edit]
Part of a series on
Druze
The Druze Star
Beliefs
Important figures
Texts
Holy places
Holy days
History
Druze communities
Related topics

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Chatty, Dawn (2010-03-15). Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81792-9.
  2. ^ a b c d Lebanon 2015 International Religious Freedom Report U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 2019-04-23.
  3. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster, Inc. ISBN 0-87779-044-2.
  4. ^ Sewell, Abby (2017-09-15). "Finding a life partner is hard enough. For those of the Druze faith, their future depends on it". GulfNews. Retrieved 2018-09-16.
  5. ^ James Lewis (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  6. ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=wXO8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 Lebanon Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments
  7. ^ De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
  8. ^ Stokes, Jamie (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0.
  9. ^ Khuri Hitti, Philip (1996). The Origins of the Druze People: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. University of California Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-5381-2418-5. Lebanon therefore was the distributing center of the Druze people and Wādi - al - Taym was the birthplace of their faith.
  10. ^ Deeb, Marius (2013). Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon. Hoover Press. ISBN 978-0-8179-1666-4. the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
  11. ^ United Nations Development Programme : Programme on Governance in the Arab Region : Elections : Lebanon Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
  12. ^ a b "Druze". druze.org.au. 2015. Archived from the original on 2016-02-14.
  13. ^ James Lewis (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  14. ^ William Harris (19 Jul 2012). Lebanon: A History, 600-2011 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-518111-1.
  15. ^ Hazran, Yusri (2013). The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-317-93173-7. the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
  16. ^ Artzi, Pinḥas (1984). Confrontation and Coexistence. Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-965-226-049-9. .. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
  17. ^ CHURCHILL (1862). The Druzes and the Maronites. Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25. ..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
  18. ^ a b Hobby (1985). Near East/South Asia Report. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53. the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
  19. ^ Fawaz, L.T. (1994). An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08782-8. Retrieved 2015-04-16.
  20. ^ Vocke, Harald (1978). The Lebanese war: its origins and political dimensions. C. Hurst. p. 10. ISBN 0-903983-92-3.
  21. ^ Swayd, Samy (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Druzes. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-4422-4617-1. Some Muslim rulers and jurists have advocated the persecution of members of the Druze Movement beginning with the seventh Fatimi Caliph Al-Zahir, in 1022. Recurring period of persecutions in subsequent centuries ... failure to elucidate their beliefs and practices, have contributed to the ambiguous relationship between Muslims and Druzes
  22. ^ K. Zartman, Jonathan (2020). Conflict in the Modern Middle East: An Encyclopedia of Civil War, Revolutions, and Regime Change. ABC-CLIO. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-4408-6503-9. Historically, Islam classified Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians as protected "People of the Book," a secondary status subject to payment of a poll tax. Nevertheless, Zoroastrians suffered significant persecution. Other religions such as the Alawites, Alevis, and Druze often suffered more.
  23. ^ Layiš, Aharôn (1982). Marriage, Divorce, and Succession in the Druze Family: A Study Based on Decisions of Druze Arbitrators and Religious Courts in Israel and the Golan Heights. BRILL. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-06412-6. the Druze religion, though originating from the Isma'lliyya, an extreme branch of the Shia, seceded completely from Islam and has, therefore, experienced periods of persecution by the latter.
  24. ^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are". Arab America. 8 August 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  25. ^ J. Stewart, Dona (2008). The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-135-98079-5. Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
  26. ^ Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-19-986263-4. While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
  27. ^ De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
  28. ^ Parsons, L. (2000). The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49. Springer. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-230-59598-9. With the succession of al-Zahir to the Fatimid caliphate a mass persecution (known by the Druze as the period of the mihna) of the Muwaḥḥidūn was instigated ...
  29. ^ C. Tucker, Spencer C. (2019). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 364–366. ISBN 978-1-4408-5353-1.
  30. ^ Taraze Fawaz, Leila. An occasion for war: civil conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. p.63.
  31. ^ Goren, Haim. Dead Sea Level: Science, Exploration and Imperial Interests in the Near East. p.95-96.
  32. ^ C. Tucker, Spencer C. (2019). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 364. ISBN 978-1-4408-5353-1.
  33. ^ Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-09672-6.
  34. ^ Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir, Meib, May 2003, archived from the original (dossier) on July 20, 2009
  35. ^ "Who's who in Lebanon". BBC News. 14 March 2005. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
  36. ^ "Saturday's live coverage of the war in Lebanon". Ya Libnan. Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
  37. ^ Kandy Ringer. "Lebanon's Fighting Spreads to Druze Heartland". BBC News. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
  38. ^ Mishaqa, p. 23.
  39. ^ Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (2009-01-01). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 530. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
  40. ^ F. Harik, Iliya (2017). Politics and Change in a Traditional Society: Lebanon 1711-1845. Princeton University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-1-4008-8686-9. the Abillama' amirs, were mostly Christians converted from the Druze faith.
  41. ^ Shwayri, Raif (2016). Beirut on the Bayou: Alfred Nicola, Louisiana, and the Making of Modern Lebanon. SUNY Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4384-6095-6. The Abillamah, by the way, also converted to Christianity when the Metn Mountains came to be densely inhabited by Christians, a second conversion for them, given that they already turned Druze earlier, relinquishing the Sunni religion
  42. ^ Nisan, Mordechai (2004). The Conscience of Lebanon: A Political Biography of Etienne Sakr (Abu-Arz). Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-135-75952-0. Other earlier converts were the Abillamah Druze Emirs and Harfush Shiite.
  43. ^ al- H̲azīn, Farīd (2000). The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976. Harvard University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-674-08105-5. So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
  44. ^ Salibi, Kamal (1900). A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. University of California Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-520-07196-4. namely the emirs of the house of Abul - Lama, used to be Druzes before they converted to Christianity and became Maronites
  45. ^ Matti Moosa, The Maronites in History, p. 283. Quote
  46. ^ A. Kayyali, Randa (2006). The Arab Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-313-33219-7. some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...
  47. ^ A. Kayyali, Randa (2006). The Arab Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-313-33219-7. Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.
  48. ^ Hobby, Jeneen (2011). Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. University of Philadelphia Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-4144-4891-6. US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
  49. ^ Panagakos, Anastasia (2015). Religious Diversity Today: Experiencing Religion in the Contemporary World [3 volumes]: Experiencing Religion in the Contemporary World. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-4408-3332-8.
  50. ^ C. Held, Colbert (2008). Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics. Routledge. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-429-96200-4. Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
  51. ^ a b تعرف على طائفة "الموحدين العرب" الدروز, BBC
  52. ^ Barakat, Halim (2011). Lebanon in Strife: Student Preludes to the Civil War. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73981-9. the Druzes make up almost half the district, of Aley, one third of Rashaya, and more than a quarter of Shuf and Matn...
  53. ^ Bowman, Glenn (2012). Sharing the Sacra: The Politics and Pragmatics of Intercommunal Relations Around Holy Places. Berghahn Books. p. 17. ISBN 9780857454867.
  54. ^ Haber et al. 2013. Quote:1-"We show that religious affiliation had a strong impact on the genomes of the Levantines. In particular, conversion of the region's populations to Islam appears to have introduced major rearrangements in populations' relations through admixture with culturally similar but geographically remote populations, leading to genetic similarities between remarkably distant populations like Jordanians, Moroccans, and Yemenis. Conversely, other populations, like Christians and Druze, became genetically isolated in the new cultural environment. We reconstructed the genetic structure of the Levantines and found that a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners."
    2-"The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."
    3-Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins."
  55. ^ Deeb, Marius (2013). Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon. Hoover Press. ISBN 9780817916664. the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
  56. ^ Barakat, Halim (2011). Lebanon in Strife: Student Preludes to the Civil War. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292739819.
  57. ^ Hazran, Yusri (2013). The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 9781317931737. the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
  58. ^ Artzi, Pinḥas (1984). Confrontation and Coexistence. Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 166. ISBN 9789652260499. .. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
  59. ^ Churchill (1862). The Druzes and the Maronites. Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25. ..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
  60. ^ Beaurepaire, Pierre-Yves (2017). Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries. Taylor & Francis. p. 9. ISBN 9781351722179.
  61. ^ Volk, Lucia (2010). Memorials and Martyrs in Modern Lebanon. Indiana University Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780253004925.
  62. ^ Panzac, 1995, p. 381.
  63. ^ a b Morgenstern, 1966, p. 158.
  64. ^ a b c Genzor, Jozef (1990). Asian and African Studies: Vol. 19, No. 3. University of Michigan Press. p. 274. ISBN 978-0700702268.
  65. ^ a b c d Beaurepaire, Pierre-Yves (2017). Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries. Taylor & Francis. pp. 310–314. ISBN 9781351722179.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Lebanese_Druze&oldid=1263118648"