History of East Africa

Map of Eastern Africa:
Green: Eastern Africa (UN Subregion)

Dark Green: East African Community

Very Light Green: Central African Federation (Political: Defunct)

Light Green: Geographic, including above

The history of East Africa has been divided into its prehistory, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed. East Africa is the eastern region of Africa, bordered by North Africa, Central Africa, Southern Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Sahara Desert. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary East African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.

Geography

Satellite imagery of East Africa.

The area located at the south of the desert is a steppe, a semi-arid region, called the Sahel. It is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt of tropical savanna that spans the African continent, from the Atlantic Ocean coast in the West Sudanian savanna to the Ethiopian Highlands in the East Sudanian savanna.

Climate

In 15,000 BP, the West African Monsoon transformed the landscape of Africa and began the Green Sahara period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g., lakes, wetlands) and the savanna (e.g., grassland, shrubland) in North Africa.^[1] Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended.^[1]

Prehistory

In 78,300 BP, amid the Middle Stone Age, a two and half to three year old human child was buried at Panga ya Saidi, in Kenya.^[2]

In 13,000 BP, Nubians, who were found to be morphologically different from newer Nubian populations and morphologically similar to Sub-Saharan Africans (e.g., Kerma, modern Eastern Africans, modern Western Africans), resided in tropical Jebel Sahaba.^[3]

Between 8000 BP and 2000 BP, Saharan herders migrated into Eastern Africa, and brought along with them their monumental Saharan burial traditions.^[4]

Amid the Holocene, around 7100 BP, six individuals were buried.^[5]

In the uplands of Nakfa, there is painted rock art (e.g., petroglyphs) in Karora depicting symbolic representations, men, and animals (e.g., horses, camels, antelopes, goats, sheep, cattle), which has been dated to the 2nd millennium BCE.^[6]^[7]

Iron Age

Archaeometallurgical scientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located in West Africa, Central Africa, and East Africa; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.^[8] The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in East Africa are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in Nubia that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC,^[9]^[10]^[11] particularly in Meroe where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.

There is also evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Iron Age

Ancient history

Bantu expansion

From West Africa, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated, along with their ceramics, into the other areas of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[18] The Kalundu ceramic type may have spread into Southeastern Africa.^[18] Additionally, the Eastern African Urewe ceramic type of Lake Victoria may have spread, via African shores near the Indian Ocean, as the Kwale ceramic type, and spread, via Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as the Nkope ceramic type.^[18]

Though some may have been created later, the earlier red finger-painted rock art may have been created between 6000 BP and 1800 BP, to the south of Kei River and Orange River by Khoisan hunter-gatherer-herders, in Malawi and Zambia by considerably dark-skinned, occasionally bearded, bow-and-arrow-wielding Akafula hunter-gatherers who resided in Malawi until the 19th century CE, and in Transvaal by the Vhangona people.^[19]

Bantu-speaking farmers, or their Proto-Bantu progenitors, created the later white finger-painted rock art in some areas of Tanzania, Malawi, Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, as well as in the northern regions of Mozambique, Botswana, and Transvaal.^[19] The Transvaal (e.g., Soutpansberg, Waterberg) rock art was specifically created by Sotho-speakers (e.g., Birwa, Koni, Tlokwa) and Venda people.^[19] Concentric circles, stylized humans, stylized animals, ox-wagons, saurian figures, Depictions of crocodiles and snakes were included in the white finger-painted rock art tradition, both of which were associated with rainmaking and, crocodiles in particular, were also associated with fertility.^[19] The white finger-painted rock art may have been created for reasons relating to initiation rites and puberty rituals.^[19] Depictions from the rock art tradition of Bantu-speaking farmers have been found on divination-related items (e.g., drums, initiation figurines, initiation masks); fertility terracotta masks from Transvaal have been dated to the 1st millennium CE.^[19] Along with Iron Age archaeological sites from the 1st millennium CE, this indicates that white finger-painted rock art tradition may have been spanned from the Early Iron Age to the Later Iron Age.^[19]

Kingdom of Kush

The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.^[20] The city-state of Kerma emerged as the dominant political force, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourth cataracts, an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" and over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.^[21] It emerged as the earliest kingdom in Sub-Saharan Africa, and persisted from 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE.^[22]

Kingdom of Punt

The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BCE), returning with cargoes of antyue and Puntites. However, gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as the time of Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty.^[23]

Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in the Sixth, Eleventh, Twelfth and Eighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt was celebrated in popular literature in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor.

In the reign of Mentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BCE), an officer named Hannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions.^[24] Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohs Senusret I, Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from the mysterious land of Punt.^[25]^[26]

Kingdom of Dʿmt

Given the presence of a large temple complex, the capital of Dʿmt may have been present day Yeha, in Tigray Region, Ethiopia.^[28] At Yeha, the temple to the god Ilmuqah is still standing.^[29]

Aksumite Empire

Somewhat based on the basis of Carlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work on Ethiopian history, Aksum is thought by some to have started out as a Sabaean colony, founded by the semitic Sabaeans, also evidenced by the semitic language domination over the oromo language, part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Others believe that the development of it was mostly independent. Proponents of the latter believe that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with D' mt or some other "proto-Aksumite" state. Evidence suggests that semitic-speaking Aksumites semiticized the Agaw people, who, before that, most likely took influence from foreign Afroasiatic cultures in their development as a people group, suggested by the Cushitic language they speak. They had also already established an agricultural community in the area before any known arrival of the Sabaeans, to which is affiliated with the spread of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum.^[30]^[a]^[31]

Swahili Coast

In the pre-Swahili period, the region was occupied by smaller societies whose main socioeconomic activities were pastoralism, fishing, and mixed farming.^[32] Early on, those living on the Swahili coast prospered because of agriculture helped by regular yearly rainfall and animal husbandry.^[33] The shallow coast was important as it provided seafood.^[33] Starting in the early 1st millennium CE, trade was crucial.^[33]^[34] Submerged river estuaries created natural harbors as well as the yearly monsoon winds helped trade.^[33]^[34] Later in the 1st millennium CE there was a huge migration of Bantu-speaking peoples.^[33] The communities settling along the coast shared archaeological and linguistic features with those from the interior of the continent. Archeological data has revealed the use of Kwale and Urewe ceramics both along the coast and within the interior parts, showing that the regions had a shared lifeway in the Late Stone and Early Iron Ages.^[32]

Post-classical history

Harla Kingdom

Harla Kingdom^[35] was a 6th century CE Harla state centered around present day eastern Ethiopia.^[36]^[37] The kingdom had trading relations with the Ayyubid and Tang dynasties.^[38] It also established its own currency and calendar.^[39]

Kingdom of Bazin

The Kingdom of Bazin was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Kingdom of Semien

Coins with the image of Emperor Ezana of Axum

The beginning of a conversion process of the Kingdom of Axum to Christianity is thought to have occurred with the arrival of two Syrian brothers Frumentius and Aedesius, sometime in the reign of Ezana.^[41] The conversion, bringing with it Hebraizing elements, was partial, initially was limited to the court and probably affected only the caravan trading route areas between Axum and Adulis. Neither Judaizing nor Christianizing local populations would have fitted into what we later define as normative Judaism or Christianity, but were syncretic mixtures of local faiths and new beliefs from forebears of these respective religions.^[42] Later legend speaks of a revolt by Jews taking place at this period but there is no evidence that directly support this story, and its historicity is considered unlikely.^[43] A strong possibility exists that the Christian Kaleb of Axum, who had dispatched military contingents to fight against the Judaizing Dhu Nuwas of the Arabian peninsula kingdom of Himyar banished opponents to the Simien Mountains, which later emerged as a Beta Israel stronghold. Nothing in the historical record from the 6th century CE to the 13th century CE, however, has allowed scholars to make anything more than very tentative hypotheses concerning the Jewish communities of that time. Legends surrounding a Jewish queen called Judith (Gudit) have been dismissed by Ethiopian specialists like Edward Ullendorff as without foundation in any historical facts.^[43]

Kingdom of Belgin

The Kingdom of Belgin, also known as the Kingdom of Baqulin, was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Kingdom of Jarin

The Kingdom of Jarin was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Kingdom of Qita'a

The Kingdom of Qita’a, also known as the Kingdom of Qata, was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Kingdom of Nagash

The Kingdom of Nagash was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it is one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Kingdom of Tankish

The Kingdom of Tankish was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.^[40]

Tunni Sultanate

The Tunni, composed of five sub-clans (Da'farad, Dakhtira, Goygali, Hajuwa, and Waridi), were the latest to drive the Jiddu into the interior, where they established their own Sultanate in Qoryoley. The Tunni made a treaty with the Jiddu so that Tunni settled on the west bank of the Shabelle and the Jiddu settled on the east bank. Both also agreed to resist foreign penetration, to allow only Seddah Saamood (the three foot-prints, which are the Tuni, the Jiddu, and the wild beasts).^[44] However, they did accept the first Muslim migrants, the Hatimi from Yemen and the Amawi from Syria, around the 10th century CE, for both religious and commercial reasons. Barawa founded by a Tunni saint called Aw-Al became the new capital for the Tunni Sultanate. The town prospered and became one of the major Islamic centers in the Horn, the Barawaani Ulama, attracting students from all over the region. Muslim scholars of that time, such as Ibn Sa'id, wrote about Barawa as "an Islamic island on the Somali coast." Al-Idrisi also described the construction of the coral houses and noted that Barawa was full of both domestic and foreign commodities.^[45]

Eventually, the Tunni people abandoned the pastoral lifestyle and established themselves largely as farmers on the rich arable land where they grew a variety of fruits and vegetables but they still continued to practice livestock grazing. They established a number of concentrated settlements on the interior such as Buulo, Golweyn, and Xaramka, Jilib, Jamaame, and their center Qoryooley.^[46] The Tunni Somali clan inhabiting the cultivated Shebelle valley behind the coast produced foodstuffs for the coastal towns as well as acting as brokers for other Somali traders further inland.^[47]

Sultanate of Showa

The Sultanate of Showa (Sultanate of Shewa) also known as Makhzumi Dynasty was a Muslim kingdom in present-day Ethiopia. Its capital Walale was situated in northern Hararghe in Harla country.^[48]^[49] Its territory extended possibly to some areas west of the Awash River.^[50] The port of Zeila may have influenced the kingdom.^[51] The rise of the Makhzumi state at the same time resulted in the decline of the Kingdom of Axum.^[52] Several engravings dating back to the 13th century CE showed the presence of the kingdom are found in Chelenqo, Bate, Harla near Dire Dawa and Munessa near Lake Langano.^[53]

Empire of Kitara

According to oral tradition in the area of the Great Lakes of Africa (also known as Bachwezi, Bacwezi, or Chwezi empire, Empire of the moon) was ruled by a dynasty known as the Bachwezi (Chwezi), successors of the Batembuzi Dynasty.^[54]

Kilwa Sultanate

The story of Kilwa begins around 960 CE – 1000 CE.^[55]

Ethiopian Empire

The Ethiopian Empire would emerge following the establishment of the Solomonic dynasty by Yekuno Amlak in approximately 1270.^[56]

Sultanate of Ifat

Ifat first emerged when Umar ibn Dunya-huz, later to be known as Sultan Umar Walasma, carved out his own kingdom and conquered the Sultanate of Showa (located in the highlands of Eastern Shewa).^[57]^[58]^[59] Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period.^[60]

Hadiya Sultanate

Hadiya was likely part of the domain of the Sultanate of Showa and linked to the Harla^[61] before the non-Islamic Kingdom of Damot's invasion led by Sidama.^[62] A cluster of speakers labelled Hadiya-Sidama developed maintaining Islamic identity and later creating the Hadiya Sultanate.^[63]

Sultanate of Mogadishu

For many years Mogadishu functioned as the pre-eminent city in the Bilad al Barbar, or "Land of the Berbers", as medieval Arabic-speakers named the Somali coast.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] Following his visit to the city, the 12th century CE Syrian historian Yaqut al-Hamawi (a former slave of Greek origin) wrote a global history of many places he visited including Mogadishu and called it the richest and most powerful city in the region and described it as an Islamic center on the Indian Ocean.^[68]^[69]

In the early 13th century CE, Mogadishu along with other coastal and interior Somali cities in southern Somalia and eastern Abyissina came under the Ajuran Sultanate control and experienced another Golden Age.^[70]

Kingdom of Buganda

Originally a vassal state of Bunyoro, Buganda grew rapidly in power in the 18th century CE and the 19th century CE becoming the dominant kingdom in the region. Buganda started to expand in the 1840s CE, and used fleets of war canoes to establish "a kind of imperial supremacy" over Lake Victoria and the surrounding regions. Subjugating weaker peoples for cheap labor, Buganda grew into a powerful "embryonic empire".^[71] The first direct contact with Europeans was established in 1862 CE, when British explorers John Hanning Speke and Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton entered Buganda and according to their reports, the kingdom was highly organized.^[72]

Ajuran Sultanate

The Ajuran Empire, also spelled Ajuuraan Empire,^[73] and often simply as Ajuran,^[74] was a Somali empire in the medieval times in the Horn of Africa that dominated the trade in northern Indian Ocean. They belonged to the Somali Muslim sultanate^[75]^[76]^[77] that ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa in the Middle Ages. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in East Asia, South Asia, Europe, the Near East, North Africa and East Africa.^[78]

Kingdom of Kaffa

The Kingdom of Kaffa was founded, c. 1390 CE, by Minjo, who according to oral tradition ousted the Mato dynasty of 32 kings. However, his informants told Amnon Orent, "no one remembers the name of a single one."^[79]

Kingdom of Rwanda

Before the 19th century CE, it was believed that the Tutsis held military leadership power while the Hutus possessed healing power and agricultural skills. In this capacity, the Mwami's council of advisors (abiiru) was exclusively Hutu and held significant sway. By the mid-18th century CE, however, the abiiru had become increasingly marginalized.^[80]

As the kings centralized their power and authority, they distributed land among individuals rather than allowing it to be passed down through lineage groups, of which many hereditary chiefs had been Hutu. Most of the chiefs appointed by the Mwamis were Tutsi.^[81] The redistribution of land, enacted between 1860 CE and 1895 CE by Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, resulted in an imposed patronage system, under which appointed Tutsi chiefs demanded manual labor in return for the right of Hutus to occupy their land. This system left Hutus in a serf-like status with Tutsi chiefs as their feudal masters.^[82]^[83]

Adal Sultanate

Adal Kingdom (also Awdal, Adl, or Adel)^[84] was centred around Zeila, its capital.^[85]^[86]^[87] It was established by the local Somali tribes in the early 9th century CE. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of the earliest cities in the world to embrace Islam.^[88]^[84]^[89]

Shilluk Kingdom

According to Shilluk legends, the kingdom was founded in 1490 CE. Its legendary first ruler ("Reth") was the hero known as Nyikang who claimed to be half-crocodile and possessed power over the rain.^[90] Nyikang was the son of a king, Okwa, who ruled a country located "far south near a large lake". This may be Lake Albert, where the Acholi live. After Okwa's death, Nyikang went to war with his brother Duwadh, the legitimate successor to the throne. Facing defeat, Nyikang left his homeland with his retinue and migrated northeast to Wau (near the Bahr el Ghazal, "river of gazelles" in Arabic). Here (known by the Shilluk as the Pothe Thuro) Nyikang married the daughter of Dimo, the local magician. After a conflict with Dimo Nyikang migrated north (crossing the Bahr el Ghazal) to Acietagwok (a Shilluk village about 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the village of Tonga) around 1550 CE. Nyikang then traveled to Nyilual, an uninhabited region west of the present town of Malakal.^[91] In the end, legends claim that Nyikang vanished in a whirlwind in the middle of a battle.^[90]

Ankole Kingdom

Banyankore trace their ancestors back to the Bairu and the Bahima subgroup.^[92] The kingdom was abolished in 1967 CE by the Ugandan government under president Apollo Milton Obote.^[92]

Modern history

Sennar Sultanate

Christian Nubia, represented by the two medieval kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia, began to decline from the 12th century CE.^[93] By 1365 CE, Makuria had virtually collapsed and was reduced to a petty kingdom restricted to Lower Nubia, until finally disappearing c. 150 years later.^[94] The fate of Alodia is less clear.^[93] It has been suggested that it collapsed already as early as the 12th century or shortly after, as archaeology suggests that in this period, Soba ceased to be used as its capital.^[95] By the 13th century CE, central Sudan seemed to have disintegrated into various petty states.^[96] Between the 14th century CE and the 15th century CE Sudan was overran by Bedouin tribes.^[97] In the 15th century CE, one of these Bedouins, whom Sudanese traditions refer to as Abdallah Jammah, is recorded to have created a tribal federation and to have subsequently destroyed what was left of Alodia. In the early 16th century CE, Abdallah's federation came under attack of an invader from the south, the Funj.^[98] In 1504 CE, the Funj defeated Abdallah Jammah and founded the Funj sultanate.^[99]

Kingdom of Burundi

The date of the foundation of the Kingdom of Burundi is unknown but probably dates back to the 17th century CE when the Tutsi ethnic group gained dominance over the larger ethnic Hutu population of the region. Under mwami Ntare I (r. 1675 CE – 1705 CE), the kingdom expanded and annexed a number of surrounding polities.^[100] Although ruled by the mwami, the kingdom was extensively decentralised and local sub-rulers had wide independence. Before the arrival of European colonists, succession struggles were also common.^[100]

Kingdom of Kooki

The Kooki Kingdom was established at some point in time between 1696 CE and 1740 CE by the Mubito prince of Bwohe. Bwohe was a part of the Bunyoro-Kitara dynasty who with his followers broke away from the larger Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom and created his own. Bwohe died in either 1740 CE or 1750 CE.^[101]^[102]

Sultanate of the Geledi

At the end of the 17th century CE, the Ajuran Sultanate was on its decline and various vassals were breaking free or being absorbed by new Somali powers. One of these powers was the Silcis Sultanate, which began consolidating its rule over the Afgooye region. Ibrahim Adeer led the revolt against the Silcis ruler Umar Abrone and his oppressive daughter, Princess Fay.^[103] After his victory over the Silcis, Ibrahim then proclaimed himself Sultan and subsequently founded the Gobroon Dynasty.

The Geledi Sultanate was a Rahanweyn Kingdom ruled by the noble Geledi which controlled the entire Jubba River region and extending to parts of Shebelle River and conducting a significant amount of trade in the region. The Geledi Sultanate had southern Arabians pay tribute to Geledi Sultan Ahmed Yusuf.^[104]

Sultanate of Aussa

In 1734 CE, the Afar leader Data Kadafo, head of the Mudayto clan, seized power and established the Mudayto Dynasty.^[105]^[106] This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period.^[106] The primary symbol of the Sultan was a silver baton, which was considered to have magical properties.^[107] The influence of the sultanate extended into the Danakil lowlands of what is now Eritrea.^[108]

Majeerteen Sultanate

The Majeerteen Sultanate was established, possibly around 1600s CE, by Somalis from the Majeerteen Darod clan.^[109] It reached prominence during the 19th century CE, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud.^[110]

Isaaq Sultanate

The modern Guleed dynasty of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century CE by Sultan Guled of the Eidagale line of the Garhajis clan. His coronation took place after the victorious battle of Lafaruug in which his father, a religious mullah Abdi Eisa successfully led the Isaaq in battle and defeated the Absame tribes near Berbera where a century eralier the Isaaq clan expanded into. After witnessing his leadership and courage, the Isaaq chiefs recognized his father Abdi who refused the position instead relegating the title to his underage son Guled while the father acted as the regent till the son come of age. Guled was crowned the as the first Sultan of the Isaaq clan on July 1750 CE.^[111] Sultan Guled thus ruled the Isaaq up until his death in 1839 CE, where he was succeeded by his eldest son Farah full brother of Yuusuf and Du'ale, all from Guled's fourth wife Ambaro Me'ad Gadid.^[112]

Habr Yunis Sultanate

The Habr Yunis Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th century CE. It spanned the territories of the Habr Yunis clan which is part of the wider Isaaq in modern day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Ainanshe branch of the Habr Yunis clan.^[113]^[114]^[115]^[116]

Kingdom of Gomma

Mohammed Hassen explains the tradition around Nur Husain as reflecting the fact that "Gomma was the first state in the Gibe region where Islam became the religion of the whole people."^[117] Trimingham states that Gomma was the first of the Gibe kingdoms to convert to Islam, quoting Major G.W. Harris as writing that by 1841 CE "in Goma the Moslem faith is universal."^[118]

Tooro Kingdom

The Tooro Kingdom evolved out of a breakaway segment of Bunyoro some period before the 19th century CE.^[119] It was founded in 1830 CE when Omukama Kaboyo Olimi I, the eldest son of Omukama of Bunyoro Nyamutukura Kyebambe III of Bunyoro, seceded and established his own independent kingdom.^[120]^[121]

Mbokane Kingdom

The Mbokane Kingdom or Chieftaincy dates back to the founding of the Swati nation. The Mbokane clan was one of the 17 founding clans of the Kingdom of Swaziland, now Eswatini. At least two of the olden days, King of Swaziland’s senior advisers were from the Mbokane clan. The first known senior Chief of the Mbokane clan was Chief Gadlela Mbokane. He was the senior Chief and adviser to iNgwenyama King Dlamini III. Dlamini III was a king or iNgwenyama of the Swazi people and he led them approximately between 1720 until 1744. King Dlamini III was the father to Ngwane III the first King of modern Swaziland. Chief Manzini Mbokane was one of the senior adviser to King Mbandzeni. Mbandzeni (also known as Dlamini IV, Umbandine,[2] Umbandeen[3]) (1855–1889) was the King of Swaziland from 1872 until 1889. Chief Manzini Mbokane’s granddaughter was also married to Prince Mbilini waMswati. Prince Mbilini waMswati was a Swazi prince and son of Mswati II.

Kingdom of Jimma

The origins of Jimma are obscure, although prior to the Oromo migrations, the territory this kingdom came to occupy had been part of the Kingdom of Kaffa. According to legend, a number of Oromo groups (variously given from five to 10) were led to Jimma by a great sorceress and Queen named Makhore, who carried a boku (usually connected with the abba boku, or headman of the Oromo Gadaa system)^[122] which when placed on the ground would cause the earth to tremble and men to fear. It is said that with this boku, she drove the Kaffa people living in the area across the Gojeb River. While this suggests that the Oromo invaders drove the original inhabitants from the area, Herbert S. Lewis notes that Oromo society was inclusionist, and the only ethnic differences they made are reflected in the history of various kinship groups.^[123]

Kingdom of Gumma

The latest kings of Gumma traced their origin to a man called Adam. Around 1770 CE, he came to live in the area, and is said to have then helped in the deposition of the last king of the previous dynasty, Sarborada. The historian Mohammed Hassen, in discussing this tradition, suggests this tradition about Adam "was invented so as to Islamize the original founder of the dynasty."^[124]

King Jawe was converted to Islam by merchants from Shewa and Begemder, and in turn he imposed his religious faith upon his subjects.^[125]

Sultanate of Hobyo

Initially, Ali Yusuf Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighbouring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s CE, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to overpower the local Hawiye clans and establish the kingdom of Hobyo in 1878.^[110]^[126]^[127]

In late 1888 CE, Sultan Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italians, making his realm an Italian protectorate. His rival Boqor Osman would sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Sultanate the following year. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist objectives, with Kenadid looking to use Italy's support in his dispute with the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar over an area bordering Warsheikh, in addition to his ongoing power struggle over the Majeerteen Sultanate with Boqor Osman. In signing the agreements, the rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories.^[128]

Kingdom of Karagwe

The Karagwe kingdom was part of the many Great Lakes Kingdoms in East Africa. The kingdom reached its apex during the 19th century CE. The growth occurred during the early part of the 1800s CE with King Ndagara who came to power around 1820 CE and ruled until 1853 CE at which time he was replaced by King Rumanika.^[129]

Kingdom of Unyanyembe

Unyanyembe had a large population of the Tutsi in the 19th century CE. Although they came primarily as herdsmen, many were recruited into the army for the war against Urambo.^[130]

Kingdom of Urambo

Much of Mirambo's success came from his associations with the Watuta. This was a sub-group of Ngoni people, who were connected with Zwagendaba. With the wars in southern Africa as Shaka had expanded Zulu power, this group had been driven north, this particular sub-group settling near Bukune. Mirambo was closely associated with the Watuta's leader Mpangalala. It seems that it was from Mpangalala Mirambo learned about the age-grade military systems of southern Africa, and this led to Mirambo implementing it in his own similar system called the rugaruga. By the early 1880s CE, this military organization had about 10,000 members.^[131]

Slave trade

Colonial period

Portuguese and Arab periods

Scramble for Africa

Post-colonial period

History of Eastern African Architecture

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

Political history of East Africa

History of science and technology in East Africa

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

Military history of East Africa

Genetic history of Eastern Africa

From the region of Kenya and Tanzania to South Africa, eastern Bantu-speaking Africans constitute a north to south genetic cline; additionally, from eastern Africa to toward southern Africa, evidence of genetic homogeneity is indicative of a serial founder effect and admixture events having occurred between Bantu-speaking Africans and other African populations by the time the Bantu migration had spanned into South Africa.^[132]

Archaic Human DNA

While Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain, archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.^[133]

Ancient DNA

Ethiopia

At Mota, in Ethiopia, an individual, estimated to date to the 5th millennium BP, carried haplogroups E1b1 and L3x2a.^[134]^[135] The individual of Mota is genetically related to groups residing near the region of Mota, and in particular, are considerably genetically related to the Ari people.^[136]^[137]

Kenya

At Jawuoyo Rockshelter, in Kisumu County, Kenya, a forager of the Later Stone Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 and L4b2a2c.^[138]^[139]

At Ol Kalou, in Nyandarua County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3d1d.^[138]^[139]

At Kokurmatakore, in Marsabit County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1/E-M35 and L3a2a.^[138]^[139]

At White Rock Point, in Homa Bay County, Kenya, there were two foragers of the Later Stone Age; one carried haplogroups BT (xCT), likely B, and L2a4, and another probably carried haplogroup L0a2.^[138]^[139]

At Nyarindi Rockshelter, in Kenya, there were two individuals, dated to the Later Stone Age (3500 BP); one carried haplogroup L4b2a and another carried haplogroup E (E-M96, E-P162).^[140]^[141]

At Lukenya Hill, in Kenya, there were two individuals, dated to the Pastoral Neolithic (3500 BP); one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880) and L4b2a2b, and another carried haplogroup L0f1.^[140]^[141]

At Hyrax Hill, in Kenya, an individual, dated to the Pastoral Neolithic (2300 BP), carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) and L5a1b.^[140]^[141]

At Molo Cave, in Kenya, there were two individuals, dated to the Pastoral Neolithic (1500 BP); while one had haplogroups that went undetermined, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) and L3h1a2a1.^[140]^[141]

At Kakapel, in Kenya, there were three individuals, one dated to the Later Stone Age (3900 BP) and two dated to the Later Iron Age (300 BP, 900 BP); one carried haplogroups CT (CT-M168, CT-M5695) and L3i1, another carried haplogroup L2a1f, and the last carried haplogroup L2a5.^[140]^[141]

At Panga ya Saidi, in Kenya, an individual, estimated to date between 496 BP and 322 BP, carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2 and L4b2a2.^[142]

Kilifi

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a1b2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L3e3a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a11.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L2a1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2 and L3f1b1a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3f1b4a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3e3.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a2a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J and L3b1a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L2a1f1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a+@16124.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2a1a1a1a1f~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup M30d1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup L0a1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1226 cal CE and 1297 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and M30d1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1323 cal CE and 1423 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b and L0d3.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1350 CE and 1500 CE, carried haplogroup L1c3a1b.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2 and L3e3a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1408 cal CE and 1442 cal CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1424 cal CE and 1457 cal CE, carried haplogroup L3a2.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1435 cal CE and 1469 cal CE, carried haplogroups J and L3d1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1435 cal CE and 1479 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1442 cal CE and 1612 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1 and L0a1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1445 cal CE and 1609 cal CE, carried haplogroups R1a1a1 and L3b1a1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1611 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L3d1a1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1614 cal CE, carried haplogroups R1a1a1 and L3e1d1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1623 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1450 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroups J2a1a1a2a2b and L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1451 cal CE and 1619 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1 and L3e3a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1454 cal CE and 1623 cal CE, carried haplogroup L3f1b1a1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1457 cal CE and 1626 cal CE, carried haplogroup L2a1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1496 cal CE and 1630 cal CE, carried haplogroup L1c3a1b.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1497 cal CE and 1640 cal CE, carried haplogroup L2a1'2'3'4.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1508 cal CE and 1654 cal CE, carried haplogroup R0+16189.^[143]

Laikipia County

At Kisima Farm/Porcupine Cave, in Laikipia County, Kenya, there were two pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and M1a1, and another carried haplogroup M1a1f.^[138]^[139]

At Kisima Farm/C4, in Laikipia County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age, carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and L3h1a1.^[138]^[139]

At Laikipia District Burial, in Laikipia County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroup L0a1c1.^[138]^[139]

Lamu

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 800 CE and 1500 CE, carried haplogroup L3d1a1a.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroups J2 and L2d1a.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroup L2d1a.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1437 cal CE and 1482 cal CE, carried haplogroup L2a1b1.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1456 cal CE and 1621 cal CE, carried haplogroup L2d1a.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1456 cal CE and 1621 cal CE, carried haplogroup J2.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1457 cal CE and 1626 cal CE, carried haplogroups J2b2a2~ and L2d1a.^[143]

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1485 cal CE and 1629 cal CE, carried haplogroups G2a and L3e3a.^[143]

At Lamu, Pate Island, Faza, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1500 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a and L3e3a.^[143]

Nakuru County

At Prettejohn’s Gully, in Nakuru County, Kenya, there were two pastoralists of the early pastoral period; one carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and K1a, and another carried haplogroup L3f1b.^[138]^[139]

At Cole's Burial, in Nakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1a1b1/E-CTS3282 and L3i2.^[138]^[139]

At Rigo Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya, there were three pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan, one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3f, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likely E-M293, and probably M1a1b, and the last carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L4b2a2c.^[138]^[139]

At Naishi Rockshelter, in Nakuru County, Kenya, there two pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b/E-V1515, likely E-M293, and L3x1a, and another carried haplogroups A1b (xA1b1b2a)/A-P108 and L0a2d.^[138]^[139]

At Keringet Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroups A1b1b2/A-L427 and L4b2a1, and another pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan carried haplogroup K1a.^[138]^[139]

At Naivasha Burial Site, in Nakuru County, Kenya, there were five pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroup L4b2a2b, another carried haplogroups xBT, likely A, and M1a1b, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3h1a1, another carried haplogroups A1b1b2b/A-M13 and L4a1, and the last carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3x1a.^[138]^[139]

At Njoro River Cave II, in Nakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic carried haplogroup L3h1a2a1.^[138]^[139]

At Egerton Cave, in Nakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan carried haplogroup L0a1d.^[138]^[139]

At Ilkek Mounds, in Nakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E2 (xE2b)/E-M75 and L0f2a.^[138]^[139]

At Deloraine Farm, in Nakuru County, Kenya, an iron metallurgist of the Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1a/E-M58 and L5b1.^[138]^[139]

Narok County

At Kasiole 2, in Narok County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b/E-V1515, likely E-M293, and L3h1a2a1.^[138]^[139]

At Emurua Ole Polos, in Narok County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3h1a2a1.^[138]^[139]

Taita Taveta

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a and L4b2a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L3d1a1a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c and L1c3b1a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L3f2a1.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L0f2a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L5a1a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a and L2a1+143.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L0d3.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L3e3a.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1667 cal CE and 1843 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c and L2a1+143.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1698 cal CE and 1950 cal CE, carried haplogroup L0a1a+200.^[143]

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1709 cal CE and 1927 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d~ and L3a2.^[143]

Tanzania

At Mlambalasi rockshelter, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 20,345 BP and 17,025 BP, carried undetermined haplogroups.^[144]

At Kisese II rockshelter, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 7240 BP and 6985 BP, carried haplogroups B2b1a~ and L5b2.^[144]

At Luxmanda, Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 3141 BP and 2890 BP, carried haplogroup L2a1.^[142]

At Kuumbi Cave, in Zanzibar, Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 1370 BP and 1303 BP, carried haplogroup L4b2a2c.^[142]

Karatu District

At Gishimangeda Cave, in Karatu District, Tanzania, there were eleven pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 and HV1b1, another carried haplogroup L0a, another carried haplogroup L3x1, another carried haplogroup L4b2a2b, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and L3i2, another carried haplogroup L3h1a2a1, another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likely E-M293 and L0f2a1, and another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likely E-M293, and T2+150; while most of the haplogroups among three pastoralists went undetermined, one was determined to carry haplogroup BT, likely B.^[138]^[139]

Kilwa Coast

At Kilwa, Coast, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1300 CE and 1600 CE, carried haplogroups J2a2a1a1a2a~ and L2a1h.^[143]

At Kilwa, Coast, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1300 CE and 1600 CE, carried haplogroup L3b1a11.^[143]

Lindi

At Lindi, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1511 cal CE and 1664 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d~ and L0a1a2.^[143]

Pemba Island

At Makangale Cave, on Pemba Island, Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 1421 BP and 1307 BP, carried haplogroup L0a.^[142]

At Makangale Cave, on Pemba Island, Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 639 BP and 544 BP, carried haplogroup L2a1a2.^[142]

Songo Mnara

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1294 cal CE and 1392 cal CE, carried haplogroups R1a and L3e3a.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1402 cal CE and 1437 cal CE, carried haplogroup L3e2b1a2.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1412 cal CE and 1446 cal CE, carried haplogroup L3d1a1a.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1418 cal CE and 1450 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1~ and L3e2b.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1508 cal CE and 1648 cal CE, carried haplogroup L3d1a1a1.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1516 cal CE and 1667 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1a~ and L3a1b.^[143]

At Songo Mnara, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1629 cal CE and 1794 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b1a1a1b2~ and L3d1a1a1.^[143]

Uganda

At Munsa, in Uganda, an individual, dated to the Later Iron Age (500 BP), carried haplogroup L3b1a1.^[140]^[141]

Y-Chromosomal DNA

As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearing haplogroup E1b1a-V38, likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west.^[145]

Before the East African slave trade period, East Africans, who carried haplogroup E1b1a-M2, expanded into Arabia, resulting in various rates of inheritance throughout Arabia (e.g., 2.8% Qatar, 3.2% Yemen, 5.5% United Arab Emirates, 7.4% Oman).^[146]

Mitochondrial DNA

In 150,000 BP, Africans (e.g., Central Africans, East Africans) bearing haplogroup L1 diverged.^[147] In 130,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L5 diverged in East Africa.^[147] Between 130,000 BP and 75,000 BP, behavioral modernity emerged among Southern Africans and long-term interactions between the regions of Southern Africa and Eastern Africa became established.^[147] Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L3 emerged in East Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modern West Africans, Central Africans, and non-Africans.^[147] Amid the Holocene, including the Holocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa.^[147] As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations into Europe and Asia; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe and Asia.^[147] During the early period of the Holocene, 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into North Africa by West Africans and the other 50% was introduced by East Africans.^[147] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into North Africa than East Africans.^[147] Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans, largely in the region of Arabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.^[147] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.^[147]

Autosomal DNA

Across all areas of Madagascar, the average ancestry for the Malagasy people was found to be 4% West Eurasian, 37% Austronesian, and 59% Bantu.^[148]

Medical DNA

The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo adaptation are regulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate to diet, physiology, and evolutionary pressures from pathogens.^[132] Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation, Duffy blood group, increased rates of G6PD deficiency, sickle cell disease) to malaria has been found among Sub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.^[132] Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of the Duffy-null genotype.^[149] In the highlands of Ethiopia, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs10803083, an SNP associated with the rate and function of hemoglobin; BHLHE41, a gene associated with circadian rhythm and hypoxia response; EGNL1, a gene strongly associated with oxygen homeostasis in mammals) to hypoxia and low atmospheric pressure has been found among the Amhara people, which may have developed within the past 5000 years.^[132] In Tanzania, genetic adaptation (e.g., greater amount of amylase genes than in African populations that consume low-starch foods) has been found in the Hadza people due to a food diet that especially includes consumption of tubers.^[132]

Olduvai Gorge Museum

Enkorika (Oldowan)^[161]
Kariandusi prehistoric site (1,000,000 BP)^[162]
Olorgesailie (740,000 BP – 600,000 BP)^[163]
Kalambo Falls (500,000 BP – 490 BP)^[164]
Kapthurin (285,000 BP)^[165]
Omo Kibish Formation (196,000 BP)^[166]

Gademotta (183,000 BP)^[159]
Bouri Formation (160,000 BP)^[165]
Mousteroid (80,000 BP – 50,000 BP)^[167]^[168]
Mumba Cave (49,000 BP)^[169]
Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings (47,000 BP – 4000 BP)^[170]
Enkapune Ya Muto (40,000 BP)^[171]
Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar (25,000 BP)^[172]
Nataruk (10,500 BP – 9500 BP)^[173]
Koobi Fora (10,000 BP – 6000 BP)^[174]
Laas Geel (10th millennia BP – 9th millennia BP)^[175]
Chabbé (9500 BP – 8500 BP)^[176]
Lake Turkana (7960 BP)^[177]
Wilton culture (7630 BP – 5970 BP)^[178]
Caves in Somaliland (4th/3rd millennium BCE)^[179]
Gogo Falls (5800 BP – 2000 BP)^[180]
Turkana Basin (5000 BP – 4000 BP)^[181]
Dhambalin (5000 BP – 3000 BP)^[182]
Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (5000 BP – 1200 BP)^[183]
Hyrax Hill (5000 BP – 1200 BP)^[138]
Hyrax Hill Prehistoric Site and Museum
Ileret (4000 BP)^[184]
Handoga (4th millennium BP)^[185]
Asa Koma (3900 BP – 3630 BP)^[186]
Nakfa, Eritrea (2nd millennium BCE)^[6]^[7]
Adulis (2nd/1st millennium BCE)^[187]
Engaruka (1930/1690 BCE)^[188]
Kalokol Pillar Site (3800 BP)^[189]
Elmenteitan (3000 BP – 1200 BP)^[138]
Luxmanda (3000/2845 BP)^[190]
Njoro River Cave (3165 BP)^[191]
Keskese (1st millennium BCE)^[192]
Matara, Eritrea (1st millennium BCE)^[192]
KM2 and KM3 sites (830 BCE; 400 BCE)^[193]
Sembel (400 BCE)^[187]
Ngenyn (2080 BP)^[194]
Ngamuriak (2000 BP)^[195]
Toniki (1st century CE)^[196]
Heis (town) (1st century CE)^[197]
Macajilayn (1st century CE – 4th century CE)^[198]
Kiongwe (117/350 CE)^[199]
Black Assarca shipwreck (3rd/4th century CE)^[200]
Dungur (550 CE – 650/700 CE)^[187]
Mifsas Bahri (550 CE – 700 CE)^[201]
Berenice Epideires (7th century CE)^[202]
Kilwa Kisiwani (7th century CE)^[203]
Kaole (7th century CE/8th century CE)^[203]
Sirikwa culture (1200 BP – 300 BP)^[204]
Lamu (8th century CE)^[205]
Pate Island (8th century CE – 15th century CE)^[206]
Jumba la Mtwana (8th century CE – 17th century CE)^[207]
Shanga, Pate Island (8th/9th century CE)^[208]
Munsa (900 CE – 1200 CE)^[209]
Ras Mkumbuu Ruins (10th century CE – 14th century CE)^[210]
Tiya (archaeological site) (10th century CE – 15th century CE)^[211]
Ntusi (11th century CE)^[212]
Qohaito (1st millennium CE)^[192]
Ivuna (13th century CE)^[213]
Ruins of Gedi (1300 CE)^[214]
Songo Mnara (15th century CE)^[215]
Maduna (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[216]
Mambrui (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[217]
Manda Island (16th century CE – 17th century CE)^[218]
Bigo (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[219]
Amud (16th century CE)^[220]
Takwa (16th/17th century CE)^[221]
Bulhar (16th century CE – 19th century CE)^[220]
Loikop people (19th century CE)^[222]
Gaanlibah (100 BP)^[223]

Undated

Kal-Sheikh (Undated)^[224]
Salweyn

List of archaeological cultures and sites

Notes

^ According to Munro-Hays, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Ge'ez and the other Eothiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."^[30]

References

^ ^a ^b Pausata, Francesco S.R.; et al. (2016). "Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 434: 298–307. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.434..298P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049.
^ Martinón-Torres, María; et al. (5 May 2021). "Earliest known human burial in Africa". Nature. 593 (7857): 95–100. Bibcode:2021Natur.593...95M. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03457-8. hdl:10072/413039. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9023721985. PMID 33953416. S2CID 233871256.
^ Holliday, T. W. (July 2015). "Population Affinities of the Jebel Sahaba Skeletal Sample: Limb Proportion Evidence". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 25 (4): 466–476. doi:10.1002/OA.2315. ISSN 1047-482X. OCLC 5857432312. S2CID 127144668.
^ Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; et al. (September 2018). "Cemeteries on a moving frontier: Mortuary practices and the spread of pastoralism from the Sahara into eastern Africa". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 51: 187–205. doi:10.1016/J.JAA.2018.08.001. ISSN 0278-4165. OCLC 7807446987. S2CID 149941298.
^ Laird, Myra F.; et al. (January 2021). "Human burials at the Kisese II rockshelter, Tanzania". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 175 (1): 187–200. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24253. ISSN 0002-9483. OCLC 8995410614. PMC 8248353. PMID 33615431. S2CID 231990472.
^ ^a ^b Rao, Sadasivuni Krishna (August 2014). "Ecological Perspective of Rock Art of Eritrea in East Africa". Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies. 2 (4): 548. ISSN 2321-2799. OCLC 958715841.
^ ^a ^b Hagos, Tekle (June 2011). The Ethiopian Rock Arts: The Fragile Resources. Galda Verlag. p. 104. ISBN 9783941267534. OCLC 987204326.
^ Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023). "Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa". African Archaeological Review. 40 (3): 531–543. doi:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 10004759980. S2CID 261858183.
^ Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). A History of Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521867467 – via Google Books.
^ Edwards, David N. (2004). The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203482766 – via Google Books.
^ Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018). "Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe". Journal of Field Archaeology. 43 (5): 399–416. doi:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085.
^ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–1089. Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. JSTOR 1746308. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350.
^ Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". Journal of Field Archaeology. 10 (4): 421–434. doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.
^ Schmidt, Peter (1978). Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
^ Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion". The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276.
^ Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.). A Companion to African History. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288.
^ Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.). The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c Vicente, Mario (2020). Demographic History and Adaptation in African Populations (PDF). Acta Universitatis Upsaliens Uppsala. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-91-513-0889-0. ISSN 1651-6214.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Prins, Frans E.; Hall, Sian (1994). "Expressions of fertility, in the rock art of Bantu-speaking agriculturists" (PDF). African Archaeological Review. 12: 173–175, 197–198. doi:10.1007/BF01953042. ISSN 0263-0338. JSTOR 25130575. OCLC 5547024308. S2CID 162185643.
^ Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette (2009). "The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System". Norwegian Archaeological Review. 42 (1): 50–70. doi:10.1080/00293650902978590. S2CID 154430884.
^ Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". The Times. London.
^ Honegger, Matthieu; Williams, Martin (15 December 2015). "Human occupations and environmental changes in the Nile valley during the Holocene: The case of Kerma in Upper Nubia (northern Sudan)". Quaternary Science Reviews. 130: 141–154. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.06.031. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
^ Breasted 1906–1907, p. 161.
^ Breasted 1906–1907, pp. 427–433.
^ Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Penguin Books, 1996 hardback, p.145
^ El-Sayed Mahfouz: Amenemhat IV at Wadi Gawasis, Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale A. (BIFAO) 2010, vol. 110, [165-173, 485, 491 [11 p.], ISBN 978-2-7247-0583-6, see also [1]
^ Edwards, Amelia (1891). "Queen Hatasu, and Her Expedition to the Land of Punt". Pharaohs Fellahs and Explorers. Harper & Brothers. pp. 261–300.
^ Shaw, Thurstan (1995), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, p. 612, ISBN 978-0-415-11585-8
^ Stuart Munro-Hay (2002). Ethiopia: The Unknown Land. I.B. Taurus. p. 18.
^ ^a ^b Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity (PDF). University Press. p. 57. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2013.
^ Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (January 17, 2003). "Let's Look Across the Red Sea I". Addis Tribune. Archived from the original on January 9, 2006.
^ ^a ^b LaViolette, Adria. Swahili Coast, In: Encyclopedia of Archaeology, ed. by Deborah M. Pearsall. (2008): 19-21. New York, NY: Academic Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Swahili Coast".
^ ^a ^b Int'l Commerce, Snorkeling Camels, and The Indian Ocean Trade: Crash Course World History #18
^ Belayneh, Anteneh (2014). "Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat human ailments in the prehistoric place of Harla and Dengego valleys, eastern Ethiopia". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 10: 18. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-10-18. PMC 3933041. PMID 24499509.
^ "Archaeologists in Ethiopia uncover ancient city in Harlaa". BBC NEWS.
^ "Early African Muslims had cosmopolitan, halal diet, shows discovery of thousands of ancient animal bones". University of Exeter.
^ Peacock, A.C.S (8 March 2017). Islamisation: Comparative Perspectives from History. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474417143.
^ "Office exerts effort to preserve historical heritage site". Ethiopian Press. Archived from the original on 2022-02-13. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Elzein, Intisar Soghayroun (2004). Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan. Archaeopress. p. 13. ISBN 1841716391.
^ Kaplan 1992, pp. 33–34.
^ Kaplan 1992, p. 35.
^ ^a ^b Kaplan 2007, p. 500.
^ "The Total Somali Clan Genealogy (second edition)" (PDF).
^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780810866041.
^ Lewis, I.M (2011). Understanding Somalia and Somaliland Culture, History and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199326815.
^ Spear, Thomas (1981). Kenya's Past An Introduction to Historical Method in Africa. Longman. ISBN 9780582646964.
^ Østebø, Terje (30 September 2011). Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia. BRILL. p. 56. ISBN 978-9004184787.
^ The Ethno-History of Halaba People (PDF). p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2018.
^ Braukhaper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 21. ISBN 9783825856717.
^ Hbrek, Ivan (1988). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. UNESCO. p. 85. ISBN 9789231017094.
^ "Ethiopianist Notes". African Studies Center, Michigan State University. 1–2: 17. 1977.
^ GIANFRANCESCO, LUSINI. LINGUE DI CRISTIANI E LINGUE DI MUSULMANI D'ETIOPIA. EDIZIONI DI STORIA E LETTERATURA. p. 136.
^ Doyle, Shane (2006). Crisis & Decline in Bunyoro: Population & Environment in Western Uganda 1860-1955. James Currey Publishers. pp. 11–13. ISBN 9780852554319.
^ Strong, S. Arthur (1895) "The History of Kilwa, edited from an Arabic MS", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, January (No volume number), pp. 385–43
^ Adejumobi (2007), p. 10
^ Niall Finneran The Archaeology of Ethiopia - Google Books" Routledge, 2013. p. 254.
^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (1998). Ifat: historical state. Encyclopedia Britannica.
^ David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia - Google Books" Scarecrow Press, 2013. p. 225.
^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State, p. 125
^ Hassen, Mohammed. Oromo of Ethiopia (PDF). University of London. p. 137.
^ Bounga, Ayda (2014). "The kingdom of Damot: An Inquiry into Political and Economic Power in the Horn of Africa (13th c.)". Annales d'Ethiopie. 29: 262. doi:10.3406/ethio.2014.1572.
^ BRAUKÄMPER, ULRICH (1973). "The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical Records in Southern Ethiopia: A Case Study of the Hadiya/Sidamo Past". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 11 (2): 29–50. JSTOR 41988257.
^ M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek "Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century", "General History of Africa". Retrieved 31 December 2015.
^ Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama, (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.
^ J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge History of Africa, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.
^ George Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea", (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.
^ Roland Anthony Oliver, J. D. Fage, Journal of African history, Volume 7, (Cambridge University Press.: 1966), p. 30.
^ I.M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p. 20.
^ Lee V. Cassanelli, The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.102.
^ Osterhammel (2015), p. 445.
^ Sagan, Eli (1985). At the Dawn of Tyranny: The Origins of Individualism, Political Oppression, and the State. Vintage Books/Random House. pp. 3-56. ISBN 0-394-74670-8.
^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. Greenwood. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.
^ "Ajuran | historical state, Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica.
^ Luling, Virginia (2002). Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150 years. Transaction Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-874209-98-0.
^ Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316
^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (1989). "The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960". Ufahamu. 17 (2): 98. doi:10.5070/F7172016882.
^ Shelley, Fred M. (2013). Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders. ABC-CLIO. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-61069-106-2.
^ Amnon Orent, " Refocusing on the History of Kafa prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes", African Historical Studies, 3 (1970), p. 268 n. 8
^ Swanson, Brent. "Rwanda's Voice: An Ethnomusicological Biography of Jean-Paul Samputu." PhD diss., 2014.
^ "Bakiga People and their Culture".
^ Johan Pottier (2002). Re-imagining Rwanda (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
^ "Neighbours who kill 'without hatred': Hutus and Tutsis deny the depth". The Independent. 11 April 1994.
^ ^a ^b Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003). "Awdal". Historical dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionary Series. Vol. 87. Scarecrow Press. p. 44. ISBN 0810843447.
^ Lewis, I. M. (1999-01-01). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. ISBN 9780852552803.
^ Shinn, David H.; Ofcansky, Thomas P. (2013-04-11). Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810874572.
^ Pieter, Esterhuysen (2013-12-07). Africa A to Z: Continental and Country Profiles: Third Edition. Africa Institute of South Africa. ISBN 9780798303446.
^ "Image: The Travels of Al-Yaqubi". Archived from the original (PNG) on 2021-11-12. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2016-01-11). "Adal Sultanate". The Encyclopedia of Empire. American Cancer Society. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe145. ISBN 9781118455074.
^ ^a ^b Martell 2018, p. 18.
^ Oyler 1918, p. 108
^ ^a ^b "Runyakore History and Culture" (PDF). 26 January 2021.
^ ^a ^b Grajetzki 2009, p. 117.
^ Werner 2013, pp. 143–146.
^ Grajetzki 2009, p. 123.
^ O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 19.
^ Hasan 1967, p. 176.
^ Loimeier 2013, pp. 140–141.
^ O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 25–26.
^ ^a ^b "Kingdom of Burundi". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ "Uganda other traditional states".
^ "How Kamuswaga handed over Kooki to Kabaka Mwanga". 9 January 2021.
^ Luling (1993), p.13.
^ Luling (2002), p.272.
^ Abir, pp. 23-26.
^ ^a ^b Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. Red Sea Press. ISBN 0932415199.
^ Trimingham, p. 262.
^ AESNA (1978). In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists. AESNA. p. 38. Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.
^ Fergusson, James (2013-05-01). The World's Most Dangerous Place: Inside the Outlaw State of Somalia. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306821585.
^ ^a ^b Helen Chapin Metz, Somalia: a country study, (The Division: 1993), p.10.
^ "Maxaad ka taqaana Saldanada Ugu Faca Weyn Beesha Isaaq oo Tirsata 300 sanno ku dhawaad? | Somaliland Post". Somaliland Post. 13 February 2021.
^ Genealogies of the Somal. Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896.
^ d'Abbadie, Antoine (1890). Géographie de l'Ethiopie: ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu. Mesnil. p. 334. ISBN 9781173215750.
^ Cosmos: communicazioni sui progressi recenti e notevoli della geografia e delle scienze affini di Guido Cora, p.201
^ British Somaliland By Drake Brockman. 1912.
^ Truhart, P. (1984). Regents of nations: systematic chronology of states and their political representatives in past and present : a biographical reference book. pp.72
^ Hassen, The Oromo, p. 109
^ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 200.
^ "Uganda Batoro - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System".
^ Turyahikayo, B. (1976). "Review of A DYNASTIC HISTORY "THE KINGDOM OF TORO IN UGANDA"". Transafrican Journal of History. 5 (2): 194–200. ISSN 0251-0391. JSTOR 24520247.
^ "Today in History: Toro king passes on".
^ Lewis, Galla Monarchy, p. 65. He also notes that the Gadaa system was almost entirely forgotten in Jimma by 1960, and suggests that its use may have ended a generation or two earlier.
^ Lewis, Galla Monarchy, p. 38
^ Hassen, The Oromo, p. 108
^ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 202
^ Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.75.
^ Lea, David; Rowe, Annamarie (2001). A Political Chronology of Africa. Europa Publications. p. 378. ISBN 1857431162.
^ Issa-Salwe (1996:34–35)
^ Israel.K.Katooke
^ Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 5, p. 306-309
^ Dictionary of African Biography p. 224
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Pfennig, Aaron; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations". Genome Biology and Evolution. 15 (4): evad054. doi:10.1093/gbe/evad054. OCLC 9817135458. PMC 10118306. PMID 36987563. S2CID 257803764.
^ Bergström, Anders; et al. (February 2021). "Origins of modern human ancestry" (PDF). Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..229B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. S2CID 231883210.
^ Llorente, M. Gallego; et al. (November 2015). "Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture throughout the African continent". Science. 350 (6262): 820–822. Bibcode:2015Sci...350..820L. doi:10.1126/science.aad2879. hdl:2318/1661894. PMID 26449472. S2CID 25743789.
^ Llorente, M. Gallego; et al. (13 November 2015). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture in Eastern Africa". Science. 350 (6262): 820–822. Bibcode:2015Sci...350..820L. doi:10.1126/science.aad2879. hdl:2318/1661894. PMID 26449472. S2CID 25743789.
^ Hellenthal, G; Bird, N; Morris, S (April 2021). "Structure and ancestry patterns of Ethiopians in genome-wide autosomal DNA". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R42 – R48. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab019. ISSN 0964-6906. OCLC 9356326828. PMC 8242491. PMID 33547782. S2CID 233400456.
^ Pagani, Luca; et al. (13 July 2012). "Ethiopian genetic diversity reveals linguistic stratification and complex influences on the Ethiopian gene pool". American Journal of Human Genetics. 91 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015. ISSN 1537-6605. PMC 3397267. PMID 22726845.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v Prendergast, Mary E.; et al. (July 2019). "Ancient DNA reveals a multistep spread of the first herders into sub-Saharan Africa". Science. 365 (6448). Bibcode:2019Sci...365.6275P. doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. OCLC 8168339433. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Prendergast, Mary E.; et al. (5 July 2019). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient DNA reveals a multistep spread of the first herders into sub-Saharan Africa". Science. 365 (6448): eaaw6275. Bibcode:2019Sci...365.6275P. doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. OCLC 8168339433. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa". Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. OCLC 9579954867. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa" (PDF). Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. OCLC 9579954867. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Skoglund, Pontus; et al. (September 2017). "Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure". Cell. 171 (1): 59–71.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049. ISSN 0092-8674. OCLC 7144495602. PMC 5679310. PMID 28938123. S2CID 1257429.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap ^aq ^ar ^as ^at ^au ^av ^aw ^ax ^ay ^az ^ba ^bb ^bc ^bd ^be ^bf ^bg ^bh ^bi ^bj ^bk ^bl ^bm ^bn ^bo ^bp ^bq ^br ^bs ^bt ^bu ^bv ^bw Brielle, Esther S.; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Supplementary Data Files for Entwined African and Asian genetic roots of medieval peoples of the Swahili coast". Nature. 615 (7954): 866–873. Bibcode:2023Natur.615..866B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05754-w. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9819552636. PMC 10060156. PMID 36991187. S2CID 250534036.
^ ^a ^b Lipson, Mark; et al. (23 February 2022). "Extended Data Table 1 Ancient individuals analysed in this study: Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers". Nature. 603 (7900): 290–296. Bibcode:2022Natur.603..290L. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9437356581. PMC 8907066. PMID 35197631. S2CID 247083477.
^ Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics. 102 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. OCLC 8158698745. PMC 5985360. PMID 29526279. S2CID 4636822.
^ Fernandes, Verónica Cristina Neves da Nova (November 2013). "High-resolution characterization of genetic markers in the Arabian Peninsula and Near East" (PDF). University of Leeds. S2CID 129216617.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.
^ Heiske, Margit; et al. (April 2021). "Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R72 – R78. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab018. ISSN 0964-6906. OCLC 9356330027. PMID 33481023. S2CID 231680256.
^ Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health" (PDF). Cell Genomics. 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMC 10025516. PMID 36950382. S2CID 257458855.
^ Bibi, Faysal (2011). "Mio-Pliocene Faunal Exchanges and African Biogeography: The Record of Fossil Bovids". PLOS ONE. 6 (2): e16688. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616688B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016688. PMC 3040177. PMID 21358825.
^ DeMenocal, Peter B. "African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene-Pleistocene" (PDF). ScienceDirect.
^ Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian. "New radiocarbon evidence on the extirpation of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta (Erx1.)) in northern Eurasia". Quaternary Science Reviews.
^ Campisano, Christopher; Feibel, Craig S. "Depositional environments and stratigraphic summary of the Pliocene Hadar Formation at Hadar, Afar Depression, Ethiopia". Geological society of America.
^ Geneste, Jean-Michel; et al. "The Origins of Ground-edge Axes: New Findings from Nawarla Gabarnmang, Arnhem Land (Australia) and Global Implications for the Evolution of Fully Modern Humans". Cambridge Archaeological Journal.
^ Harmand, Sonia; et al. (2015). "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. PMID 25993961. S2CID 1207285.
^ DiMaggio, Erin N.; et al. "Late Pliocene fossiliferous sedimentary record and the environmental context of early Homo from Afar, Ethiopia". Science.
^ Semaw, Sileshi. "Scientists discover hominid cranium in Ethiopia". Indiana University News Room.
^ Spoor, Fred; et al. "Implications of New Early Homo Fossils from Ileret, East of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature.
^ ^a ^b Shea, John (April 16, 2020). The East African Prehistoric Stoneworking Survey. Cambridge University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9781108424431.
^ Diez-Martín, F. (2015). "The Origin of The Acheulean: The 1.7 Million-Year-Old Site of FLK West, Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)". Scientific Reports. 5: 17839. Bibcode:2015NatSR...517839D. doi:10.1038/srep17839. PMC 4671088. PMID 26639785.
^ Tombo-Kodalo, Julius. "Archaeological survey of Narok South, Kenya" (PDF). Nyame Akum.
^ Kübler, Kübler; et al. (2017). "Tectonics and soil edaphics as controls on animal migrations and early human inhabitance in the Kenya Rift". Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. EGU General Assembly: 16526. Bibcode:2017EGUGA..1916526K.
^ Bye, Bethany A.; et al. (1987). "Increased age estimate for the Lower Palaeolithic hominid site at Olorgesailie, Kenya". Nature. 329 (6136): 237–239. doi:10.1038/329237a0. S2CID 4368751.
^ Duller, Geoff; et al. (2015). "New investigations at Kalambo Falls, Zambia: Luminescence chronology, site formation, and archaeological significance". Journal of Human Evolution. 85: 111–125. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.003. hdl:2160/29852. PMID 26073072.
^ ^a ^b McBrearty, Sally; Tryon, Christian. "From Acheulean to Middle Stone Age in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya" (PDF). Springer.
^ Fleagle, John G.; et al. (2008). "Paleoanthropology of the Kibish Formation, southern Ethiopia: Introduction" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (3): 360–365. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.007. PMID 18617219.
^ O. Davies (1964)
^ J. D. Clark (1967)
^ Assefa, Zelalem; et al. (2014). "Cultural change or continuity in the late MSA/Early LSA of southeastern Ethiopia? The site of Goda Buticha, Dire Dawa area". Quaternary International. 343: 117. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.02.001.
^ Tryon, Christian A.; et al. (2018). "Middle and Later Stone Age chronology of Kisese II rockshelter (UNESCO World Heritage Kondoa Rock-Art Sites), Tanzania". PLOS ONE. 13 (2): e0192029. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1392029T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192029. PMC 5830042. PMID 29489827.
^ Mellars, Paul (2006). "Going East: New Genetic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Modern Human Colonization of Eurasia". Science. 313 (5788): 796–800. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..796M. doi:10.1126/science.1128402. PMID 16902130. S2CID 24631308.
^ Shipton, Ceri; et al. (2016). "Reinvestigation of Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar, reveals Later Stone Age coastal habitation, early Holocene abandonment and Iron Age reoccupation". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 51 (2): 197–233. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2016.1173308. hdl:10072/172761. S2CID 44232039.
^ Mounier, Aurélien; et al. "Who were the Nataruk people? Mandibular morphology among late Pleistocene and early Holocene fisher-forager populations of West Turkana (Kenya)". Journal of Human Evolution.
^ Hovis, Ashley James. "A focus on the style of bone harpoons in the Early Holocene: An analysis of bone harpoons from Koobi Fora, Kenya" – via ProQuest.
^ Diaz, Amélie; et al. (2014). "The Hargeisan revisited: Lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, Somaliland and the transition between the Middle and Late Stone Age in the Horn of Africa". Quaternary International. 343: 69. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038.
^ Le Quellec, Jean-Loïc; Poissonnier, Nicole. "Rock Art, Environment, Settling Process and Regional Relations in the lacustrine areas of the Rift Valley: Gidiččo, Lake Abbaya and Surroundings". French Center for Ethiopian Studies.
^ Robbins, Lawrence H. "LakeTurkanaArchaeology:TheHolocene" (PDF). American Society for Ethnohistory.
^ Wadley, Lyn (2000). "The Wilton and Pre-Ceramic Post-Classic Wilton Industries at Rose Cottage Cave and Their Context in the South African Sequence". The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 55 (172): 90–106. doi:10.2307/3888959. JSTOR 3888959.
^ "Laas Geel, Somaliland". British Museum.
^ Lane, Paul J (2008). "Middle Holocene fishing strategies in East Africa: zooarchaeological analysis of Pundo, a Kansyore shell midden in northern Nyanza". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 20 (1): 88.
^ Grillo, Katherine M; Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (2013). "The context of early megalithic architecture in eastern Africa: the Turkana Basin c. 5000-4000 BP". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 48 (2): 193–217. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2013.789188. S2CID 162193899.
^ Mire, Sada (January 2008). "The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland". African Archaeological Review. 25 (3–4): 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. S2CID 162960112.
^ Prendergast, Mary (2009). "Forager Variability and Transitions to Food Production in Secondary Settings. Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Economies in East Africa". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 44 (2). Harvard University: 276. doi:10.1080/00671990903052330. S2CID 162959471.
^ Nelson, C. M. "Evidence for early trade between the coast and interior of east Africa" (PDF). Uppsala Universitet.
^ Curtis, Matthew Chad. "Archaeological Investigations In The Greater Asmara Area: A Regional Approach In The Central Highlands Of Eritrea" (PDF). University Of Florida.
^ Newton, Claire; et al. "Fuel and Vegetation at Asa Koma (Republic of Djibouti) during the Second Millennium BC". Journal of African Archaeology.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fattovich, Rodolfo (2010). "The Development of Ancient States in the Northern Horn of Africa, c. 3000 BC–AD 1000: An Archaeological Outline". Journal of World Prehistory. 23 (3): 145. doi:10.1007/s10963-010-9035-1. S2CID 162272383.
^ Seitsonen, Oula; et al. "Pastoral Neolithic studies in Northern Tanzania: An Interim Report on XRF and Stable Isotope Analyses in the Engaruka Area". Nyame Akuma.
^ Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (2011). "Four middle Holocene pillar sites in West Turkana, Kenya". Journal of Field Archaeology. 36 (3): 181–200. doi:10.1179/009346911X12991472411088. S2CID 54739651.
^ Grillo, Katherine. "Pastoral neolithic settlement at Luxmanda, Tanzania". Journal of Field Archaeology.
^ Ambrose, Stanley H. (Apr 16, 2012). Obsidian Dating and Source Exploitation Studies in Africa: Implications for the Evolution of Human Behavior. UNM Press. ISBN 9780826351616.
^ ^a ^b ^c Schmidt, Peter; Curtis, Matthew. "Urban precursors in the Horn: Early 1st-millennium BC communities in Eritrea". Antiquity.
^ Schmidt, Peter R.; Childs, S. Terry (1985). "Innovation and industry during the Early Iron Age in East Africa: the KM2 and KM3 sites of northwest Tanzania". African Archaeological Review. 3: 53–94. doi:10.1007/BF01117455. S2CID 162303042.
^ Petek, Nik. "Archaeological Perspectives on Risk and Community Resilience in the Baringo Lowlands, Kenya" (PDF). Uppsala University.
^ Marshall, Fiona (Jan 27, 2006). The origins and spread of domestic animals in East Africa. Routledge. ISBN 9781135434168.
^ Wynne-Jones, Stephanie (Oct 16, 2017). The Swahili World. Routledge. ISBN 9781317430162.
^ Rodríguez, Jorge de Torres. "Against All Odds: The History of Archaeological Research in Somaliland and Somalia" (PDF). Northeast African Studies.
^ Geshekter, Charles Lee (1992). The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Scholars Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780891306580.
^ Ntandu, Christowaja. "The Find Of Ancient Trade Materials On The Northern Coast Of Tanzania". Antiquities Division: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism R!sour&!s and Touris'.
^ Pedersen, Ralph K. "The Byzantine-Aksumite period shipwreck at Black Assarca Island, Eritrea". Azania Archaeological Research in Africa.
^ Breton, Jean-François; Ayele, Yohannes Aytenew. "Kwiha (Tigray, Ethiopia): the Aksumite city". Afrique Archeologie Arts.
^ Bevan, William Latham; Smith, William (1867). The Student's Manual of Ancient Geography with Maps, Plans, and Numerous Illustrations by W. L. Bevan. John Murray. p. 288.
^ ^a ^b Fleisher, Jeffrey. "Ceramics and the Early Swahili: Deconstructing the Early Tana Tradition". African Archaeological Review.
^ Lane, Paul (July 2013). Pastoralism in Africa Past, Present and Future. Berghahn Books. p. 111. ISBN 9780857459091.
^ Fuller, Dorian; et al. "Use of Zanzibar copal (Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn.) as incense at Unguja Ukuu, Tanzania in the 7–8th century CE: chemical insights into trade and Indian Ocean interactions". Journal of Archaeological Science.
^ Reade, Julian (Oct 28, 2013). Indian Ocean In Antiquity. Routledge. ISBN 9781136155314.
^ Agayi, Collins Ouma; Gündüz, Elif. "An Evaluation of Rural Tourism Potential for Rural Development in Kenya". International Journal of African and Asian Studies.
^ Killick, David J. "Agency, dependency and long-distance trade: East Africa and the Islamic World, ca. 700-1500 C.E". University of Arizona Press.
^ Lejju, Julius B. "Late-Holocene environmental variability at Munsa archaeological site, Uganda: A multicore, multiproxy approach". The Holocene.
^ Juma, Abdurahman. "Unguja Ukuu On Zanzibar: An Archaeological Study Of Early Urbanism" (PDF). Uppsala University.
^ "Tiya - Prehistoric site". UNESCO.
^ McGlynn, Gayle; et al. (2013). "Palaeoecological evidence for Holocene environmental change from the Virunga volcanoes in the Albertine Rift, central Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 61: 32–46. Bibcode:2013QSRv...61...32M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.11.008.
^ Foutch, Amy E.; et al. "Faunal analysis from Kibaoni, a late precolonial Pimbwe village in Rukwa Valley, Tanzania: first reconstructions of cultural and environmental histories". Azania Archaeological Research in Africa.
^ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology. Springer. p. 204. ISBN 9780306461583.
^ Horton, Mark; et al. "The Mosques of Songo Mnara in their Urban Landscape". Journal of Islamic Archaeology.
^ Ali, M Y; Ibrahim, I. "Rock Art in Somaliland: Discovery of two new rock painting sites". Adumalu. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.8139.
^ Siu, Ieong (2020). "New light on plant ash glass found in Africa: Evidence for Indian Ocean Silk Road trade using major, minor, trace element and lead isotope analysis of glass from the 15th—16th century AD from Malindi and Mambrui, Kenya". PLOS ONE. 15 (8): e0237612. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1537612S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237612. PMC 7425976. PMID 32790731.
^ Wilson, Thomas H. "Takwa' an ancient Swahili settlement of the lamu Archipelago". Kenya Museum Society.
^ Andah, Bassey (May 22, 2014). The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. Routledge. p. 748. ISBN 9781134679423.
^ ^a ^b De Torres, Jorge. "Exploring long distance trade in Somaliland (1000-1900 AD): Preliminary results of the 2015-2016 field seasons". Academia.
^ Ghaidan, Usam Isa. "Lamu Case Study Of The Swahili Town" (PDF). University of Nairobi.
^ Jennings, Christian Charles. "Scatterlings of East Africa:Revisions of Parakuyo Identity and History, c.1830-1926" (PDF). University of Texas at Austin.
^ Bortolini, Eugenio (2019). "Newly found stone cairns in Mudug region, Puntland: a preliminary report". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 54: 94–106. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2018.1540214. S2CID 165591735.
^ Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). Somalia Today; General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic.

Bibliography

Adejumobi, Saheed A. (2007). The History of Ethiopia. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32273-0.
Breasted, John Henry (1906–1907). Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, collected, edited, and translated, with Commentary. Vol. 1. University of Chicago Press.
Grajetzki, Wolfram (2009). "Das Ende der christlich-nubischen Reiche" (PDF). Internet-Beiträge zur Ägyptologie und Sudanarchäologie. X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
Hasan, Yusuf Fadl (1967). The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century. Edinburgh University. OCLC 33206034.
Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M. (1996). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates. ISBN 187420991X.
Kaplan, Steve (1992). The Beta Israel: Falasha in Ethiopia: From Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-814-74848-0.
Kaplan, Steve (2007). "Beta Israel". Encyclopedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2 ed.). Thomson Gale. pp. 499–508.
Loimeier, Roman (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University.
Martell, Peter (2018). First Raise a Flag. London: Hurst & Company. ISBN 978-1849049597.
O'Fahey, R.S.; Spaulding, J.L (1974). Kingdoms of the Sudan. Studies of African History Vol. 9. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-77450-4.
Osterhammel, Jürgen (2015). The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century. Translated by Patrick Camiller. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691169804.
Werner, Roland (2013). Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche ["Christianity in Nubia. History and shape of an African church"] (in German). Lit. ISBN 978-3-643-12196-7.

[31] According to Munro-Hays, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Ge'ez and the other Eothiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."^[30]

[Pausata-1] Pausata, Francesco S.R.; et al. (2016). "Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 434: 298–307. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.434..298P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049.

[Martinón-Torres-2] Martinón-Torres, María; et al. (5 May 2021). "Earliest known human burial in Africa". Nature. 593 (7857): 95–100. Bibcode:2021Natur.593...95M. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03457-8. hdl:10072/413039. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9023721985. PMID 33953416. S2CID 233871256.

[Holliday-3] Holliday, T. W. (July 2015). "Population Affinities of the Jebel Sahaba Skeletal Sample: Limb Proportion Evidence". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 25 (4): 466–476. doi:10.1002/OA.2315. ISSN 1047-482X. OCLC 5857432312. S2CID 127144668.

[Sawchuk-4] Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; et al. (September 2018). "Cemeteries on a moving frontier: Mortuary practices and the spread of pastoralism from the Sahara into eastern Africa". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 51: 187–205. doi:10.1016/J.JAA.2018.08.001. ISSN 0278-4165. OCLC 7807446987. S2CID 149941298.

[Laird-5] Laird, Myra F.; et al. (January 2021). "Human burials at the Kisese II rockshelter, Tanzania". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 175 (1): 187–200. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24253. ISSN 0002-9483. OCLC 8995410614. PMC 8248353. PMID 33615431. S2CID 231990472.

[Rao-6] Rao, Sadasivuni Krishna (August 2014). "Ecological Perspective of Rock Art of Eritrea in East Africa". Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies. 2 (4): 548. ISSN 2321-2799. OCLC 958715841.

[Hagos-7] Hagos, Tekle (June 2011). The Ethiopian Rock Arts: The Fragile Resources. Galda Verlag. p. 104. ISBN 9783941267534. OCLC 987204326.

[Bandama-8] Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023). "Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa". African Archaeological Review. 40 (3): 531–543. doi:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 10004759980. S2CID 261858183.

[9] Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). A History of Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521867467 – via Google Books.

[10] Edwards, David N. (2004). The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203482766 – via Google Books.

[Humphris-11] Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018). "Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe". Journal of Field Archaeology. 43 (5): 399–416. doi:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085.

[SchmidtCS-12] Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–1089. Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. JSTOR 1746308. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350.

[Schmidt1983-13] Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". Journal of Field Archaeology. 10 (4): 421–434. doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.

[SchmidtHA-14] Schmidt, Peter (1978). Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

[15] Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion". The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276.

[16] Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.). A Companion to African History. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288.

[17] Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.). The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.

[Vicente-18] Vicente, Mario (2020). Demographic History and Adaptation in African Populations (PDF). Acta Universitatis Upsaliens Uppsala. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-91-513-0889-0. ISSN 1651-6214.

[Prins-19] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Prins, Frans E.; Hall, Sian (1994). "Expressions of fertility, in the rock art of Bantu-speaking agriculturists" (PDF). African Archaeological Review. 12: 173–175, 197–198. doi:10.1007/BF01953042. ISSN 0263-0338. JSTOR 25130575. OCLC 5547024308. S2CID 162185643.

[20] Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette (2009). "The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System". Norwegian Archaeological Review. 42 (1): 50–70. doi:10.1080/00293650902978590. S2CID 154430884.

[21] Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". The Times. London.

[HoneggerMartin2015-22] Honegger, Matthieu; Williams, Martin (15 December 2015). "Human occupations and environmental changes in the Nile valley during the Holocene: The case of Kerma in Upper Nubia (northern Sudan)". Quaternary Science Reviews. 130: 141–154. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.06.031. Retrieved 16 October 2022.

[FOOTNOTEBreasted1906–1907161-23] Breasted 1906–1907, p. 161.

[FOOTNOTEBreasted1906–1907427–433-24] Breasted 1906–1907, pp. 427–433.

[p145-25] Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Penguin Books, 1996 hardback, p.145

[26] El-Sayed Mahfouz: Amenemhat IV at Wadi Gawasis, Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale A. (BIFAO) 2010, vol. 110, [165-173, 485, 491 [11 p.], ISBN 978-2-7247-0583-6, see also [1]

[Edwards-27] Edwards, Amelia (1891). "Queen Hatasu, and Her Expedition to the Land of Punt". Pharaohs Fellahs and Explorers. Harper & Brothers. pp. 261–300.

[Thurstan612-28] Shaw, Thurstan (1995), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, p. 612, ISBN 978-0-415-11585-8

[29] Stuart Munro-Hay (2002). Ethiopia: The Unknown Land. I.B. Taurus. p. 18.

[Munro-Hay57-30] Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity (PDF). University Press. p. 57. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2013.

[32] Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (January 17, 2003). "Let's Look Across the Red Sea I". Addis Tribune. Archived from the original on January 9, 2006.

[LaViolette-33] LaViolette, Adria. Swahili Coast, In: Encyclopedia of Archaeology, ed. by Deborah M. Pearsall. (2008): 19-21. New York, NY: Academic Press.

[:9-34] "Swahili Coast".

[:2-35] Int'l Commerce, Snorkeling Camels, and The Indian Ocean Trade: Crash Course World History #18

[36] Belayneh, Anteneh (2014). "Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat human ailments in the prehistoric place of Harla and Dengego valleys, eastern Ethiopia". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 10: 18. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-10-18. PMC 3933041. PMID 24499509.

[37] "Archaeologists in Ethiopia uncover ancient city in Harlaa". BBC NEWS.

[38] "Early African Muslims had cosmopolitan, halal diet, shows discovery of thousands of ancient animal bones". University of Exeter.

[39] Peacock, A.C.S (8 March 2017). Islamisation: Comparative Perspectives from History. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474417143.

[40] "Office exerts effort to preserve historical heritage site". Ethiopian Press. Archived from the original on 2022-02-13. Retrieved 2021-05-13.

[Soghayroun-41] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Elzein, Intisar Soghayroun (2004). Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan. Archaeopress. p. 13. ISBN 1841716391.

[FOOTNOTEKaplan199233–34-42] Kaplan 1992, pp. 33–34.

[FOOTNOTEKaplan199235-43] Kaplan 1992, p. 35.

[FOOTNOTEKaplan2007500-44] Kaplan 2007, p. 500.

[45] "The Total Somali Clan Genealogy (second edition)" (PDF).

[46] Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780810866041.

[47] Lewis, I.M (2011). Understanding Somalia and Somaliland Culture, History and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199326815.

[48] Spear, Thomas (1981). Kenya's Past An Introduction to Historical Method in Africa. Longman. ISBN 9780582646964.

[49] Østebø, Terje (30 September 2011). Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia. BRILL. p. 56. ISBN 978-9004184787.

[50] The Ethno-History of Halaba People (PDF). p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2018.

[51] Braukhaper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 21. ISBN 9783825856717.

[52] Hbrek, Ivan (1988). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. UNESCO. p. 85. ISBN 9789231017094.

[53] "Ethiopianist Notes". African Studies Center, Michigan State University. 1–2: 17. 1977.

[54] GIANFRANCESCO, LUSINI. LINGUE DI CRISTIANI E LINGUE DI MUSULMANI D'ETIOPIA. EDIZIONI DI STORIA E LETTERATURA. p. 136.

[55] Doyle, Shane (2006). Crisis & Decline in Bunyoro: Population & Environment in Western Uganda 1860-1955. James Currey Publishers. pp. 11–13. ISBN 9780852554319.

[56] Strong, S. Arthur (1895) "The History of Kilwa, edited from an Arabic MS", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, January (No volume number), pp. 385–43

[A10-57] Adejumobi (2007), p. 10

[D5-58] Niall Finneran The Archaeology of Ethiopia - Google Books" Routledge, 2013. p. 254.

[Encyclopedia_Britannica_1998-59] The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (1998). Ifat: historical state. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[E2-60] David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia - Google Books" Scarecrow Press, 2013. p. 225.

[61] Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State, p. 125

[62] Hassen, Mohammed. Oromo of Ethiopia (PDF). University of London. p. 137.

[63] Bounga, Ayda (2014). "The kingdom of Damot: An Inquiry into Political and Economic Power in the Horn of Africa (13th c.)". Annales d'Ethiopie. 29: 262. doi:10.3406/ethio.2014.1572.

[64] BRAUKÄMPER, ULRICH (1973). "The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical Records in Southern Ethiopia: A Case Study of the Hadiya/Sidamo Past". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 11 (2): 29–50. JSTOR 41988257.

[65] M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek "Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century", "General History of Africa". Retrieved 31 December 2015.

[66] Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama, (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.

[67] J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge History of Africa, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.

[68] George Wynn Brereton Huntingford, Agatharchides, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea", (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.

[69] Roland Anthony Oliver, J. D. Fage, Journal of African history, Volume 7, (Cambridge University Press.: 1966), p. 30.

[70] I.M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p. 20.

[Cassanelli-71] Lee V. Cassanelli, The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.102.

[FOOTNOTEOsterhammel2015445-72] Osterhammel (2015), p. 445.

[73] Sagan, Eli (1985). At the Dawn of Tyranny: The Origins of Individualism, Political Oppression, and the State. Vintage Books/Random House. pp. 3-56. ISBN 0-394-74670-8.

[His_40-74] Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. Greenwood. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.

[75] "Ajuran | historical state, Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica.

[76] Luling, Virginia (2002). Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150 years. Transaction Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-874209-98-0.

[77] Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316

[78] Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (1989). "The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960". Ufahamu. 17 (2): 98. doi:10.5070/F7172016882.

[Shapes-79] Shelley, Fred M. (2013). Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders. ABC-CLIO. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-61069-106-2.

[80] Amnon Orent, " Refocusing on the History of Kafa prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes", African Historical Studies, 3 (1970), p. 268 n. 8

[81] Swanson, Brent. "Rwanda's Voice: An Ethnomusicological Biography of Jean-Paul Samputu." PhD diss., 2014.

[82] "Bakiga People and their Culture".

[83] Johan Pottier (2002). Re-imagining Rwanda (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 13.

[84] "Neighbours who kill 'without hatred': Hutus and Tutsis deny the depth". The Independent. 11 April 1994.

[Somalia-85] Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003). "Awdal". Historical dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionary Series. Vol. 87. Scarecrow Press. p. 44. ISBN 0810843447.

[86] Lewis, I. M. (1999-01-01). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. ISBN 9780852552803.

[87] Shinn, David H.; Ofcansky, Thomas P. (2013-04-11). Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810874572.

[88] Pieter, Esterhuysen (2013-12-07). Africa A to Z: Continental and Country Profiles: Third Edition. Africa Institute of South Africa. ISBN 9780798303446.

[Historical_sources-89] "Image: The Travels of Al-Yaqubi". Archived from the original (PNG) on 2021-11-12. Retrieved 2021-05-13.

[90] Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2016-01-11). "Adal Sultanate". The Encyclopedia of Empire. American Cancer Society. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe145. ISBN 9781118455074.

[FOOTNOTEMartell201818-91] Martell 2018, p. 18.

[Oyler_1918_108-92] Oyler 1918, p. 108

[Runyakore-93] "Runyakore History and Culture" (PDF). 26 January 2021.

[FOOTNOTEGrajetzki2009117-94] Grajetzki 2009, p. 117.

[FOOTNOTEWerner2013143–146-95] Werner 2013, pp. 143–146.

[FOOTNOTEGrajetzki2009123-96] Grajetzki 2009, p. 123.

[FOOTNOTEO'FaheySpaulding197419-97] O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEHasan1967176-98] Hasan 1967, p. 176.

[FOOTNOTELoimeier2013140–141-99] Loimeier 2013, pp. 140–141.

[FOOTNOTEO'FaheySpaulding197425–26-100] O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 25–26.

[EB-101] "Kingdom of Burundi". Encyclopædia Britannica.

[ABC-102] "Uganda other traditional states".

[DEF-103] "How Kamuswaga handed over Kooki to Kabaka Mwanga". 9 January 2021.

[104] Luling (1993), p.13.

[Luling2002-105] Luling (2002), p.272.

[106] Abir, pp. 23-26.

[Pankhurstteb-107] Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. Red Sea Press. ISBN 0932415199.

[108] Trimingham, p. 262.

[Aesna-109] AESNA (1978). In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists. AESNA. p. 38. Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.

[110] Fergusson, James (2013-05-01). The World's Most Dangerous Place: Inside the Outlaw State of Somalia. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306821585.

[Metz-111] Helen Chapin Metz, Somalia: a country study, (The Division: 1993), p.10.

[112] "Maxaad ka taqaana Saldanada Ugu Faca Weyn Beesha Isaaq oo Tirsata 300 sanno ku dhawaad? | Somaliland Post". Somaliland Post. 13 February 2021.

[113] Genealogies of the Somal. Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896.

[114] 'Abbadie, Antoine (1890). Géographie de l'Ethiopie: ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu. Mesnil. p. 334. ISBN 9781173215750.

[115] Cosmos: communicazioni sui progressi recenti e notevoli della geografia e delle scienze affini di Guido Cora, p.201

[116] British Somaliland By Drake Brockman. 1912.

[117] Truhart, P. (1984). Regents of nations: systematic chronology of states and their political representatives in past and present : a biographical reference book. pp.72

[118] Hassen, The Oromo, p. 109

[119] J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 200.

[120] "Uganda Batoro - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System".

[TUVW-121] Turyahikayo, B. (1976). "Review of A DYNASTIC HISTORY "THE KINGDOM OF TORO IN UGANDA"". Transafrican Journal of History. 5 (2): 194–200. ISSN 0251-0391. JSTOR 24520247.

[XYZ-122] "Today in History: Toro king passes on".

[123] Lewis, Galla Monarchy, p. 65. He also notes that the Gadaa system was almost entirely forgotten in Jimma by 1960, and suggests that its use may have ended a generation or two earlier.

[124] Lewis, Galla Monarchy, p. 38

[125] Hassen, The Oromo, p. 108

[126] J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 202

[Cassanelli_II-127] Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.75.

[A_Political_Chronology_of_Africa-128] Lea, David; Rowe, Annamarie (2001). A Political Chronology of Africa. Europa Publications. p. 378. ISBN 1857431162.

[Issa-Salwe3435-129] Issa-Salwe (1996:34–35)

[130] Israel.K.Katooke

[131] Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 5, p. 306-309

[132] Dictionary of African Biography p. 224

[Pfennig-133] Pfennig, Aaron; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations". Genome Biology and Evolution. 15 (4): evad054. doi:10.1093/gbe/evad054. OCLC 9817135458. PMC 10118306. PMID 36987563. S2CID 257803764.

[Bergström-134] Bergström, Anders; et al. (February 2021). "Origins of modern human ancestry" (PDF). Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..229B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. S2CID 231883210.

[Llorente-135] Llorente, M. Gallego; et al. (November 2015). "Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture throughout the African continent". Science. 350 (6262): 820–822. Bibcode:2015Sci...350..820L. doi:10.1126/science.aad2879. hdl:2318/1661894. PMID 26449472. S2CID 25743789.

[Llorente_II-136] Llorente, M. Gallego; et al. (13 November 2015). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture in Eastern Africa". Science. 350 (6262): 820–822. Bibcode:2015Sci...350..820L. doi:10.1126/science.aad2879. hdl:2318/1661894. PMID 26449472. S2CID 25743789.

[Hellenthal-137] Hellenthal, G; Bird, N; Morris, S (April 2021). "Structure and ancestry patterns of Ethiopians in genome-wide autosomal DNA". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R42 – R48. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab019. ISSN 0964-6906. OCLC 9356326828. PMC 8242491. PMID 33547782. S2CID 233400456.

[138] Pagani, Luca; et al. (13 July 2012). "Ethiopian genetic diversity reveals linguistic stratification and complex influences on the Ethiopian gene pool". American Journal of Human Genetics. 91 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015. ISSN 1537-6605. PMC 3397267. PMID 22726845.

[Prendergast-139] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v Prendergast, Mary E.; et al. (July 2019). "Ancient DNA reveals a multistep spread of the first herders into sub-Saharan Africa". Science. 365 (6448). Bibcode:2019Sci...365.6275P. doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. OCLC 8168339433. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405.

[Prendergast_II-140] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Prendergast, Mary E.; et al. (5 July 2019). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient DNA reveals a multistep spread of the first herders into sub-Saharan Africa". Science. 365 (6448): eaaw6275. Bibcode:2019Sci...365.6275P. doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. OCLC 8168339433. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405.

[Wang-141] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa". Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. OCLC 9579954867. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.

[Wang_II-142] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa" (PDF). Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. OCLC 9579954867. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.

[Skoglund-143] Skoglund, Pontus; et al. (September 2017). "Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure". Cell. 171 (1): 59–71.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049. ISSN 0092-8674. OCLC 7144495602. PMC 5679310. PMID 28938123. S2CID 1257429.

[Brielle-144] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap ^aq ^ar ^as ^at ^au ^av ^aw ^ax ^ay ^az ^ba ^bb ^bc ^bd ^be ^bf ^bg ^bh ^bi ^bj ^bk ^bl ^bm ^bn ^bo ^bp ^bq ^br ^bs ^bt ^bu ^bv ^bw Brielle, Esther S.; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Supplementary Data Files for Entwined African and Asian genetic roots of medieval peoples of the Swahili coast". Nature. 615 (7954): 866–873. Bibcode:2023Natur.615..866B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05754-w. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9819552636. PMC 10060156. PMID 36991187. S2CID 250534036.

[Lipson_II-145] Lipson, Mark; et al. (23 February 2022). "Extended Data Table 1 Ancient individuals analysed in this study: Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers". Nature. 603 (7900): 290–296. Bibcode:2022Natur.603..290L. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9437356581. PMC 8907066. PMID 35197631. S2CID 247083477.

[Shriner-146] Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics. 102 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. OCLC 8158698745. PMC 5985360. PMID 29526279. S2CID 4636822.

[Fernandes-147] Fernandes, Verónica Cristina Neves da Nova (November 2013). "High-resolution characterization of genetic markers in the Arabian Peninsula and Near East" (PDF). University of Leeds. S2CID 129216617.

[Sá-148] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.

[Heiske-149] Heiske, Margit; et al. (April 2021). "Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R72 – R78. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab018. ISSN 0964-6906. OCLC 9356330027. PMID 33481023. S2CID 231680256.

[Wonkam-150] Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health" (PDF). Cell Genomics. 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMC 10025516. PMID 36950382. S2CID 257458855.

[Bibi-151] Bibi, Faysal (2011). "Mio-Pliocene Faunal Exchanges and African Biogeography: The Record of Fossil Bovids". PLOS ONE. 6 (2): e16688. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616688B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016688. PMC 3040177. PMID 21358825.

[DeMenocal-152] DeMenocal, Peter B. "African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene-Pleistocene" (PDF). ScienceDirect.

[Stuart-153] Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian. "New radiocarbon evidence on the extirpation of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta (Erx1.)) in northern Eurasia". Quaternary Science Reviews.

[Campisano-154] Campisano, Christopher; Feibel, Craig S. "Depositional environments and stratigraphic summary of the Pliocene Hadar Formation at Hadar, Afar Depression, Ethiopia". Geological society of America.

[Geneste-155] Geneste, Jean-Michel; et al. "The Origins of Ground-edge Axes: New Findings from Nawarla Gabarnmang, Arnhem Land (Australia) and Global Implications for the Evolution of Fully Modern Humans". Cambridge Archaeological Journal.

[Harmand-156] Harmand, Sonia; et al. (2015). "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. PMID 25993961. S2CID 1207285.

[DiMaggio-157] DiMaggio, Erin N.; et al. "Late Pliocene fossiliferous sedimentary record and the environmental context of early Homo from Afar, Ethiopia". Science.

[Semaw-158] Semaw, Sileshi. "Scientists discover hominid cranium in Ethiopia". Indiana University News Room.

[Spoor-159] Spoor, Fred; et al. "Implications of New Early Homo Fossils from Ileret, East of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature.

[Shea-160] Shea, John (April 16, 2020). The East African Prehistoric Stoneworking Survey. Cambridge University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9781108424431.

[Diez-Martín-161] Diez-Martín, F. (2015). "The Origin of The Acheulean: The 1.7 Million-Year-Old Site of FLK West, Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)". Scientific Reports. 5: 17839. Bibcode:2015NatSR...517839D. doi:10.1038/srep17839. PMC 4671088. PMID 26639785.

[Tombo-Kodalo-162] Tombo-Kodalo, Julius. "Archaeological survey of Narok South, Kenya" (PDF). Nyame Akum.

[Kübler-163] Kübler, Kübler; et al. (2017). "Tectonics and soil edaphics as controls on animal migrations and early human inhabitance in the Kenya Rift". Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. EGU General Assembly: 16526. Bibcode:2017EGUGA..1916526K.

[Bye-164] Bye, Bethany A.; et al. (1987). "Increased age estimate for the Lower Palaeolithic hominid site at Olorgesailie, Kenya". Nature. 329 (6136): 237–239. doi:10.1038/329237a0. S2CID 4368751.

[Duller-165] Duller, Geoff; et al. (2015). "New investigations at Kalambo Falls, Zambia: Luminescence chronology, site formation, and archaeological significance". Journal of Human Evolution. 85: 111–125. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.003. hdl:2160/29852. PMID 26073072.

[McBrearty-166] McBrearty, Sally; Tryon, Christian. "From Acheulean to Middle Stone Age in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya" (PDF). Springer.

[Fleagle-167] Fleagle, John G.; et al. (2008). "Paleoanthropology of the Kibish Formation, southern Ethiopia: Introduction" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (3): 360–365. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.007. PMID 18617219.

[168] O. Davies (1964)

[169] J. D. Clark (1967)

[Assefa-170] Assefa, Zelalem; et al. (2014). "Cultural change or continuity in the late MSA/Early LSA of southeastern Ethiopia? The site of Goda Buticha, Dire Dawa area". Quaternary International. 343: 117. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.02.001.

[Tryon-171] Tryon, Christian A.; et al. (2018). "Middle and Later Stone Age chronology of Kisese II rockshelter (UNESCO World Heritage Kondoa Rock-Art Sites), Tanzania". PLOS ONE. 13 (2): e0192029. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1392029T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192029. PMC 5830042. PMID 29489827.

[Mellars-172] Mellars, Paul (2006). "Going East: New Genetic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Modern Human Colonization of Eurasia". Science. 313 (5788): 796–800. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..796M. doi:10.1126/science.1128402. PMID 16902130. S2CID 24631308.

[Shipton-173] Shipton, Ceri; et al. (2016). "Reinvestigation of Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar, reveals Later Stone Age coastal habitation, early Holocene abandonment and Iron Age reoccupation". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 51 (2): 197–233. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2016.1173308. hdl:10072/172761. S2CID 44232039.

[Mounier-174] Mounier, Aurélien; et al. "Who were the Nataruk people? Mandibular morphology among late Pleistocene and early Holocene fisher-forager populations of West Turkana (Kenya)". Journal of Human Evolution.

[Hovis-175] Hovis, Ashley James. "A focus on the style of bone harpoons in the Early Holocene: An analysis of bone harpoons from Koobi Fora, Kenya" – via ProQuest.

[Diaz-176] Diaz, Amélie; et al. (2014). "The Hargeisan revisited: Lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, Somaliland and the transition between the Middle and Late Stone Age in the Horn of Africa". Quaternary International. 343: 69. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038.

[Le_Quellec-177] Le Quellec, Jean-Loïc; Poissonnier, Nicole. "Rock Art, Environment, Settling Process and Regional Relations in the lacustrine areas of the Rift Valley: Gidiččo, Lake Abbaya and Surroundings". French Center for Ethiopian Studies.

[Robbins-178] Robbins, Lawrence H. "LakeTurkanaArchaeology:TheHolocene" (PDF). American Society for Ethnohistory.

[Wadley-179] Wadley, Lyn (2000). "The Wilton and Pre-Ceramic Post-Classic Wilton Industries at Rose Cottage Cave and Their Context in the South African Sequence". The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 55 (172): 90–106. doi:10.2307/3888959. JSTOR 3888959.

[British_Museum-180] "Laas Geel, Somaliland". British Museum.

[Lane-181] Lane, Paul J (2008). "Middle Holocene fishing strategies in East Africa: zooarchaeological analysis of Pundo, a Kansyore shell midden in northern Nyanza". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 20 (1): 88.

[Grillo-182] Grillo, Katherine M; Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (2013). "The context of early megalithic architecture in eastern Africa: the Turkana Basin c. 5000-4000 BP". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 48 (2): 193–217. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2013.789188. S2CID 162193899.

[Mire-183] Mire, Sada (January 2008). "The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland". African Archaeological Review. 25 (3–4): 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. S2CID 162960112.

[Prendergast_III-184] Prendergast, Mary (2009). "Forager Variability and Transitions to Food Production in Secondary Settings. Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Economies in East Africa". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 44 (2). Harvard University: 276. doi:10.1080/00671990903052330. S2CID 162959471.

[Nelson-185] Nelson, C. M. "Evidence for early trade between the coast and interior of east Africa" (PDF). Uppsala Universitet.

[Curtis-186] Curtis, Matthew Chad. "Archaeological Investigations In The Greater Asmara Area: A Regional Approach In The Central Highlands Of Eritrea" (PDF). University Of Florida.

[Newton-187] Newton, Claire; et al. "Fuel and Vegetation at Asa Koma (Republic of Djibouti) during the Second Millennium BC". Journal of African Archaeology.

[Fattovich-188] Fattovich, Rodolfo (2010). "The Development of Ancient States in the Northern Horn of Africa, c. 3000 BC–AD 1000: An Archaeological Outline". Journal of World Prehistory. 23 (3): 145. doi:10.1007/s10963-010-9035-1. S2CID 162272383.

[Seitsonen-189] Seitsonen, Oula; et al. "Pastoral Neolithic studies in Northern Tanzania: An Interim Report on XRF and Stable Isotope Analyses in the Engaruka Area". Nyame Akuma.

[Hildebrand-190] Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (2011). "Four middle Holocene pillar sites in West Turkana, Kenya". Journal of Field Archaeology. 36 (3): 181–200. doi:10.1179/009346911X12991472411088. S2CID 54739651.

[Grillo_II-191] Grillo, Katherine. "Pastoral neolithic settlement at Luxmanda, Tanzania". Journal of Field Archaeology.

[Ambrose-192] Ambrose, Stanley H. (Apr 16, 2012). Obsidian Dating and Source Exploitation Studies in Africa: Implications for the Evolution of Human Behavior. UNM Press. ISBN 9780826351616.

[Schmidt-193] Schmidt, Peter; Curtis, Matthew. "Urban precursors in the Horn: Early 1st-millennium BC communities in Eritrea". Antiquity.

[Schmidt_II-194] Schmidt, Peter R.; Childs, S. Terry (1985). "Innovation and industry during the Early Iron Age in East Africa: the KM2 and KM3 sites of northwest Tanzania". African Archaeological Review. 3: 53–94. doi:10.1007/BF01117455. S2CID 162303042.

[Petek-195] Petek, Nik. "Archaeological Perspectives on Risk and Community Resilience in the Baringo Lowlands, Kenya" (PDF). Uppsala University.

[Marshall-196] Marshall, Fiona (Jan 27, 2006). The origins and spread of domestic animals in East Africa. Routledge. ISBN 9781135434168.

[Wynne-Jones-197] Wynne-Jones, Stephanie (Oct 16, 2017). The Swahili World. Routledge. ISBN 9781317430162.

[Rodríguez-198] Rodríguez, Jorge de Torres. "Against All Odds: The History of Archaeological Research in Somaliland and Somalia" (PDF). Northeast African Studies.

[Geshekter-199] Geshekter, Charles Lee (1992). The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Scholars Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780891306580.

[Ntandu-200] Ntandu, Christowaja. "The Find Of Ancient Trade Materials On The Northern Coast Of Tanzania". Antiquities Division: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism R!sour&!s and Touris'.

[Pedersen-201] Pedersen, Ralph K. "The Byzantine-Aksumite period shipwreck at Black Assarca Island, Eritrea". Azania Archaeological Research in Africa.

[Breton-202] Breton, Jean-François; Ayele, Yohannes Aytenew. "Kwiha (Tigray, Ethiopia): the Aksumite city". Afrique Archeologie Arts.

[Bevan-203] Bevan, William Latham; Smith, William (1867). The Student's Manual of Ancient Geography with Maps, Plans, and Numerous Illustrations by W. L. Bevan. John Murray. p. 288.

[Fleisher-204] Fleisher, Jeffrey. "Ceramics and the Early Swahili: Deconstructing the Early Tana Tradition". African Archaeological Review.

[Lane_II-205] Lane, Paul (July 2013). Pastoralism in Africa Past, Present and Future. Berghahn Books. p. 111. ISBN 9780857459091.

[Fuller-206] Fuller, Dorian; et al. "Use of Zanzibar copal (Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn.) as incense at Unguja Ukuu, Tanzania in the 7–8th century CE: chemical insights into trade and Indian Ocean interactions". Journal of Archaeological Science.

[Reade-207] Reade, Julian (Oct 28, 2013). Indian Ocean In Antiquity. Routledge. ISBN 9781136155314.

[Agayi-208] Agayi, Collins Ouma; Gündüz, Elif. "An Evaluation of Rural Tourism Potential for Rural Development in Kenya". International Journal of African and Asian Studies.

[Killick-209] Killick, David J. "Agency, dependency and long-distance trade: East Africa and the Islamic World, ca. 700-1500 C.E". University of Arizona Press.

[Lejju-210] Lejju, Julius B. "Late-Holocene environmental variability at Munsa archaeological site, Uganda: A multicore, multiproxy approach". The Holocene.

[Juma-211] Juma, Abdurahman. "Unguja Ukuu On Zanzibar: An Archaeological Study Of Early Urbanism" (PDF). Uppsala University.

[UNESCO-212] "Tiya - Prehistoric site". UNESCO.

[McGlynn-213] McGlynn, Gayle; et al. (2013). "Palaeoecological evidence for Holocene environmental change from the Virunga volcanoes in the Albertine Rift, central Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 61: 32–46. Bibcode:2013QSRv...61...32M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.11.008.

[Foutch-214] Foutch, Amy E.; et al. "Faunal analysis from Kibaoni, a late precolonial Pimbwe village in Rukwa Valley, Tanzania: first reconstructions of cultural and environmental histories". Azania Archaeological Research in Africa.

[Kipfer-215] Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology. Springer. p. 204. ISBN 9780306461583.

[Horton-216] Horton, Mark; et al. "The Mosques of Songo Mnara in their Urban Landscape". Journal of Islamic Archaeology.

[Ali-217] Ali, M Y; Ibrahim, I. "Rock Art in Somaliland: Discovery of two new rock painting sites". Adumalu. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.8139.

[Siu-218] Siu, Ieong (2020). "New light on plant ash glass found in Africa: Evidence for Indian Ocean Silk Road trade using major, minor, trace element and lead isotope analysis of glass from the 15th—16th century AD from Malindi and Mambrui, Kenya". PLOS ONE. 15 (8): e0237612. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1537612S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237612. PMC 7425976. PMID 32790731.

[Wilson-219] Wilson, Thomas H. "Takwa' an ancient Swahili settlement of the lamu Archipelago". Kenya Museum Society.

[Andah-220] Andah, Bassey (May 22, 2014). The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. Routledge. p. 748. ISBN 9781134679423.

[De_Torres-221] De Torres, Jorge. "Exploring long distance trade in Somaliland (1000-1900 AD): Preliminary results of the 2015-2016 field seasons". Academia.

[Ghaidan-222] Ghaidan, Usam Isa. "Lamu Case Study Of The Swahili Town" (PDF). University of Nairobi.

[Jennings-223] Jennings, Christian Charles. "Scatterlings of East Africa:Revisions of Parakuyo Identity and History, c.1830-1926" (PDF). University of Texas at Austin.

[Bortolini-224] Bortolini, Eugenio (2019). "Newly found stone cairns in Mudug region, Puntland: a preliminary report". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 54: 94–106. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2018.1540214. S2CID 165591735.

[Ali_II-225] Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). Somalia Today; General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[a]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]