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Mexican agouti

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Mexican agouti
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dasyproctidae
Genus: Dasyprocta
Species:
D. mexicana
Binomial name
Dasyprocta mexicana
Saussure, 1860
Distribution range, green - native, blue - introduced

The Mexican agouti, (Dasyprocta mexicana), also known as the Mexican black agouti, is 1 of 13 species of rodent in the genus Dasyprocta. This species was first discovered in 1860 in Veracruz, Mexico and described by Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure.

Physical description

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Dasyprocta mexicana is a medium-sized rodent, weighing between 2 kilograms to 4 kilograms as an adult.[2] This length of D. mexicana ranges from 40 centimeters to 60 centimeters, which is inclusive of the tail that ranges from 2 centimeters to 3 centimeters in length and is located at the most posterior point of the body.[3] While data is limited on the height of this particular species, it is expected to be similar to the average height of 23 centimeters seen in similar sized agoutis.[4][3]

The head and body of D. mexicana constitute majority of this length, as this portion is on average 44.6 centimeters to 56 centimeters long.[3] The dorsal areas of the head and body of D. mexicana possess either a black or darkened brown coat colour, distinguishing this species from other members in their genus.[3][5] Throughout this darkened coat, white hairs are sparingly dispersed.[3][5] Additionally, different portions of the rodent's head and back can be marked by differences in hair length, with the rump and nape areas possessing longer, solid black hairs compared to the remainder of the rodent's body.[3][5]

The underside of D. mexicana’s body, including the chin and throat, display a slightly different colouration than the dorsum, with hairs being paler, and predominantly white in colour.[3][5] Areas of lighter colouration are also evident around the eyes and at the base of the ears (3.5 centimeters to 4.7 centimeters in length) of this species, as the skin exposed in this area appears pink in colour.[5]

The overall shape of D. mexicana’s back is rounded, with two pairs of thin, elongate legs attaching to the anterior and posterior ends.[5] While the claws of these limbs possess fingers, the terrestrial lifestyle of agouti species has encouraged a reduction in the number of digits, in addition to the presence of a vestigial thumb.[4] The smaller, anterior set of legs are the forelegs, which possess four arched finger-like claws assisting in the agouti's ability to excavate.[4] The much larger, posterior set of legs are the hindlegs, which have been modified to have only three digits.[4]  The size difference which exists between the hindlegs and the forelegs has allotted agoutis with the ability to jump.[4]

Notably, there is no sexual dimorphism documented in this species, making palpation of reproductive organs the only way to physically distinguish between sexes in this species.[4]

Further information describing the physical appearance of this species is available in various field guides and natural history resources, including The land and sea mammals of Middle America and the West Indies, and A field guide to the mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico.

Geographic range

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Dasyprocta mexicana is a terrestrial species native to Mexico, where it can be found throughout the lowlands of Gulf of Mexico in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, and Chiapas.[4] This species’ range has broadened, as it has been introduced and is currently extant in Western and Eastern areas in Cuba.[4]

Further data on the occurrence and distribution of sightings of the Mexican agouti can be explored through interactive maps and imaging from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and iNaturalist.

Habitat

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D. mexicana occupies terrestrial habitats, with a strong preference and specialization for humid tropical rainforests, lowland evergreen forests, and second growth forests.[3] This rodent can withstand a relatively broad range in elevation, with documentation of this species inhabiting elevations between 50 and 600 meters.[3]

While limited information is available pertaining to how D. mexicana utilizes its habitat, research conducted on the Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) found that D. punctata centered its home range around important food sources such as fruit trees, and that they find refugee within their habitat in places such as the trunks of these trees.[6] Given that D. punctata is physically similar and shares many life history traits with D. mexicana, including parts of their geographic ranges, it is hypothesized that D. mexicana utilizes its habitat in a similar manner.  

Development

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There is limited information available on development within the Mexican agouti. It is known that young are born precocial, and covered in fur with their eyes open.[2][7] Female agoutis have been found to nurse pups until weaning for up to 7 weeks post-partum, but young are tolerated and remain in their territory post-weaning.[2][7]

In spite of the precocial behaviour of pups, they exhibit various activities in the wild. Within a day of birth, pups engage in nursing, grooming, and foraging in leaf litter.[2][7] While the lactating female does not directly provide solid food to the pups, the pups often accompany her during foraging and consume the same food she eats.[7] It is expected that learning plays a significant role in their development, including shaping their food preferences, however over time, pups have been seen to explore and consume foods other than those introduced by their mother.[2]

Parental roles

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There is limited information available on parental roles and investment in the Mexican agouti. During pregnancy, agoutis have been observed to increase the number of seeds in their diet, to heighten their protein, fat, and energy content.[2] Females use crevices and existing burrows to birth and raise their pups.[2] Female agoutis are known to nurse pups for up to 7 weeks until weaning, however, lactating females do not directly provide their pups with food.[2] Instead, pups follow the female and learn how to forage and consume the same food as her.[2]

The involvement and parental roles of male Mexican agoutis has minimal information available.

Reproduction

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There is limited information available concerning the reproductive behaviour of D. mexicana. Socially, this species is known to possess a monogamous mating system through the formation breeding pairs for reproduction.[3][4] Each pair occupies a territory that spans 1 to 2 hectares.[3] D. mexicana undergoes viviparous reproduction, with a gestation cycle approximated to last between 104 and 120 days.[3][8] While the exact age of sexual maturity is not documented in the Mexican agouti, closely related Dasyprocta species have been found to reach sexual maturity as early as 6 months old.[4] On average, 1 or 2 young tend to be born during the dry season, March to May, by each breeding pair.[9]

Lifespan

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There is limited information currently available on the life expectancy of D. mexicana in its natural environment. A former study conducted on the longevity of this species in captivity found that this rodent had a maximum longevity of 13.1 years, however there are limitations in the accuracy of these findings as this study was conducted using a small sample size.[10]  

Behaviour

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D. mexicana is a very agile and alert species, readily prepared to run and escape danger.[3] Thus, the behaviour of D. mexicana is greatly driven by its surrounding environment, including the presence of humans and other predators.[4] This species, likewise to other members of the Dasyproctidae family, is naturally diurnal and crepuscular.[4] However, they can shift into a nocturnal lifecycle when threatened and under pressure, as a means of predator avoidance and attempt to increases their chances of survival.[4] This shift towards nocturnal behaviour in D. mexicana is frequently observed in areas where humans actively hunt this species.[3]

Senses and communication

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There is limited information available on the senses and communication within the Mexican agouti, however, this species has been documented to release a series of sharp nasal barks and stomp their feet as an alarm call while running escaping danger.[3]

Food collection and consumption

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D. mexicana is a scatter-holding frugivore, with its diet being composed primarily of the fruits of soft seeds and new-growth forest plants.[9][2] While information is limited on the food habits and specific diet constituents of D. mexicana, known information on the feeding activity of other Dasyprocta species outlined below is believed to align with the behaviours of the Mexican agouti.

All Dasyprocta species are currently known to be frugivores.[2] Dasyprocta leporine has a wild diet which is 87% fruit, 6% animal matter, 4% fibrous foods, and 2% leaves, which is predicted to be similar in composition to the diet of D. mexicana.[2] However, variations exist in the proportions of each food type consumed as a reflection of the on and off times of the fruit season, with diets being richer in fruit constituents during peak fruit season.[11][12][13][14][15] In captivity, Dasyprocta species appeared to have a preference for foods with a high energy content and low water content, however, there is limited knowledge available of the dietary requirements of agouti species.[11] Examples of some food items that wild Dasyprocta species have been observed eating include: citrus fruit and coconuts, avocado, mango, pineapple, tomato, papaya, melon, queen palm, leaves, flowers, roots, corn, rice, almonds, black palm, Brazil nuts, dry palm pyrenes, and invertebrates.[11][12][16][17][18][19][20]

Capturing of these food items is accomplished through the scatter-hoarding behaviour of Dasyprocta species, where seeds and nuts are typically cached individually once the fruit pulp is removed.[20][21][22] The retrieval of these seeds often occurs after the fruiting season, with retrievals being reported to occur up to 8 months after their initial burial.[22] This caching process generally entails burying the seeds into holes 2 to 8 centimetres deep, and then covering the holes with soils and leaf matter for protection.[22] In the wild, pregnant Dasyprocta species have been documented to increase the amounts of seeds in their diet, which in turn increases protein, fat, and energy content.[11]

Once individuals have captured food, to help with the consumption and breakdown of food items, Dasyprocta members possess what is known as the generalist feeder, rodent dentition, with a dental formula of I 1/1, C 0/0, P 1/1, M 3/3.[23] To increase resistance to compressive strain and provide a sharp edge for shaving and chiselling food items, the incisors of Dasyprotca species continuously grow and possess restricted enamel on their anteroventral surface.[24][25] Additionally, within these species, there are 2 main types of occlusions that arise from the movement of the jaw: the first being contact between the cheek teeth for mastication of animal and plant foods, and the second being contact between the incisors to assist in gnawing and chewing.[24][25] The upper and lower incisors of these species serve different roles, with upper incisors being responsible for cutting plant matter, and piercing animal food sources, while the bottom incisors cut and shear food.[24][25]

Predation, parasitism, and mutualism

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Predation

Similar to other agouti species, the known predators of Dasyprocta mexicana include cats, birds of prey, snakes, and jaguars.[4] In addition, extensive hunting of this species has also resulted in heightened predation of the Mexican agouti by humans.[4] Given the vast amount of species that prey on agoutis, to minimize conflict and predation threats, when at rest agoutis stay hidden in burrows or tree trunks.[26] In the instance that agoutis come into contact with predators, they can employ various strategies to avoid or minimize conflict, such as freezing in place, making alarm calls to alert other agoutis, or raising the hairs on their rump as a scare tactic.[26]

While agoutis are frugivores, predominantly forming mutualistic relationships with plants while feeding on and dispersing their seeds, there are a few instances of traditional antagonistic predatory relationships within this genus. While limited research is available, in some cases, plants have been observed to negatively respond to agoutis using their seeds.[27] Additionally, while limited data is accessible, agoutis have been recorded to eat insect larvae when seed and nut sources are limited.[26]

Parasitism

Further research is needed to determine what relationships exist between the Mexican agouti and different parasites. Prior studies have been conducted on the prevalence of parasites in other agouti species, however, these studies are limited and their relevance to the Mexican agouti remains unknown.

Mutualism

There is limited data available on mutualistic relationships in the Mexican agouti. However, more generalized research has been done on these interactions in other agouti species, which are believed to exhibit similar behaviours to D. mexicana.[27]

The major mutualistic relationship documented in agoutis is their relationship with plant communities. Agoutis are important seed dispersers, who often bury their seeds, to later cache them during periods of food scarcity.[27] The seeds which agoutis utilize reflect a careful consideration of various factors including abundance, mass, and nutritional value.[27] This mutualistic relationship arises as agoutis feed on fruits and nuts of plants, gaining a rich source of nutrients which they need to survive.[27] While feeding, agoutis assist in seed dispersal of plants, by caching the seeds in favourable environments that encourage germination, and through diplochory, where they act as secondary dispersers by scattering and burying seeds found in the feces of other animals.[27] This seed dispersal plants receive from agoutis thus benefits both their reproductive capacities by encouraging a greater proportion of germination amongst their seeds, and their ability to expand across a greater habitat range.[27]

Ecosystem roles

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While Dasyprocta mexicana serves a vital role in ecosystems, both through seed dispersal and their positioning in food webs, there is minimal information pertaining specifically to this species.[4] However, more generalized information on the logistics of these roles in other agouti species is available and expected to reflect the contributions of Dasyprocta mexicana.

In regards to seed dispersal, agoutis act as secondary dispersers of seeds through their digging, hiding, and seeking behaviours.[4] Specifically, they partake in the short-distance dispersal of tree seeds, which is an action secondary to the long-distance dispersal of these seeds by other species, such as Tapirus terrestris.[4] This dispersal is crucial to the ability for seeds to germinate, allowing various plant species to continue to prosper.  

This is well depicted through the crucial role agouti species are expected to play in the survival of Brazil nut trees.[26] Agoutis are one of few animals that are reported to be capable of opening the thick husk on Brazil nut seeds.[26] This is a crucial component, as the husk must be removed for the seeds to germinate.[26] Thus, in the absence of agoutis, there can be significant ecological implications for the prosperity of Brazil nut trees, and ecosystems as a whole.[26]

The capacity for agoutis to support the germination of various plants further ties into their important links to food chains.[4] By helping different plants reproduce and prosper, they are maintaining balance in food chains by ensuring that species that feed on these plants have an adequate and consistent supply of food. Additionally, their role as prey to various birds, snakes, and wild carnivores plays an important role in maintaining balance in the food web as in their absence, various species would be left to find alternative food sources, resulting in a disruption of the ecosystem.[4]    

Economic importance

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Human consumption of the Mexican agouti has significantly increased the species’ economic importance.[4] Given its high protein content, within its geographic range, this species has become a widely consumed, valuable source of protein.[4] Agouti meat is prized for its white, nutrient-rich, and flavourful characteristics, which offer a plentiful supply of calcium and phosphorus while remaining low in caloric content; approximately 120 Kcal per 100 grams of meat.[4] While a larger-scale commercialization of agouti meat yields a low market value, the production of this product requires minimal labour, and fattening and breeding procedures have the capacity to be practiced simultaneously to maximize producer profits.[28] In certain regions of the world, such as Trinidad and Tobago, agouti meat has become highly appreciated and thought of as a delicacy, which has encouraged the extensive hunting of D. mexicana.[4] The Mexican agouti has also been used as a valuable source of skin, leather, and bristles in certain regions.[28]

While there are many economic benefits of D. mexiciana, this species has also posed some negative economic threats, predominantly as an invasive species.[29] In the 1930s, when the Mexican agouti, alongside 2 other agouti species, were brought from Mexico to Sierra de los Organos and Sierra Cristal in Cuba, they were thought to have the potential to compete with the Desmarest's hutia for food and shelter due to niche overlap.[29] While they have spread across the western region of Cuba and moved up to areas like San Diego, Soroa, and Guanahacabibes since then, sightings of these invasive species have decreased, and they do not appear to be posing any significant economic or ecological threats at the current moment.[29]

Conservation status

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While the Mexican agouti was previously deemed as near threatened by the IUCN in 1996, it is now regarded as a critically endangered species.[9][30] Currently, there is a continuous decrease in the number of mature individuals within the rodent’s population, driven by continuous habitat loss within their preferred habitat range.[9][30] D. mexicana is confined to a small range of habitats, thus the conversion of suitable lands into agricultural fields and urban use puts this rodent at risk, as it is unable to capitalize off of opportunities and resources outside of the habitat they occupy.[9][30][31] Hunting threats have also contributed to population declines in the Mexican agouti, as this species has become a popular delicacy within its home range.[32] The flesh of the species is an excellent source of nutrients making it hunted by a variety of individuals, including humans, hares, and rabbits.[32]

While D. mexicana is currently found in select protected areas of Mexico, limited information is available on a species-specific plan for conservation. It is believed that further research on the population size, distribution, and trends of the Mexican agouti is still needed to determine the best conservation practices for this individual.[9]

Information on the conservation status of Dasyprocta mexicana, including population trends, threats to the species, and current conservation actions, are further detailed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List.

Taxonomic status

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Dasyprocta mexicana is a member of the order Rodentia, the family Dasyproctidae, and the genus Dasyprocta.

Dasyprocta, the genus of which the Mexican agouti is a member, was named in 1817 by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest. Originally, the Mexican agouti was placed under Dasyprocta punctata, another closely related Central American agouti species. However, further research and analyses determined that Dasyprocta mexicana was a distinct species of its own, with is being formally named in 1860 by Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure.

Detailed taxonomic entries, including information such as classification, vernacular names, checklist and nomenclature status, and taxonomic scrutiny, for Dasyprocta mexicana are available through the Catalogue of Life, Integrated Taxonomic Information System, the Open Tree of Life, and Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera.

Genetic data

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There is minimal information available on the genetics of the Mexican agouti. However, other species in the Dasyproctidae family have more comprehensive genetic information available.

Genetic data on this family can be accessed through the National Centre of Biotechnology Information, which includes a full genome sequence for the closely related species Dasyprocta punctata, and the Barcode of Life Data Systems, which has detailed information available on barcode sequences collected from different members of the Dasyproctidae family.

Additional resources

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There are various other biodiversity depositories that provide further information on the Mexican agouti.

  • VertNet: This source provides a detailed record of a preserved specimen of Dasyprocta Mexicana, including the date of collection, geographic coordinates, sex of the specimen, and identification information.
  • Wikidata: This source provides detailed information about Dasyprocta mexicana, including its taxonomic classification, conservation status, the common names of the species used in different localities, and links to identifiers of this species in various databases and external resources.
  • Wikispecies: This source provides taxonomic information and vernacular names for the Mexican agouti in various languages.
  • Encyclopedia of Life: This source provides further data on various attributes of Dasyprocta mexicana, including body shape, geographic range, social system, and temperature tolerance.
  • Mammal Diversity: This source provides additional taxonomic, distribution, and conservation information on the Mexican agouti, including its authority citation, type locality, and nominal name.
  • Biodiversity Heritage Library: This source provides access to various digitized records about the Mexican agouti, including different books, illustrations, and journals relating to the species.

Note: The accuracy and currency of these sources may vary.

References

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  1. ^ Vázquez, E.; Emmons, L.; Reid, F.; Cuarón, A.D. (2008). "Dasyprocta mexicana". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T6285A12596623. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T6285A12596623.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l McWilliams, Deborah A. (May 2009). "Determinants for the Diet of Captive Agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.)". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. 12 (2): 279–286. doi:10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.001. ISSN 1094-9194. PMID 19341954.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Dasyproctidae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 440-461 : 457
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Praxedes, Érica Camila Gurgel; Peixoto, Gislayne Christianne Xavier; Silva, Andréia Maria da; Silva, Alexandre Rodrigues (2018). "Reproduction in agouti (Dasyprocta spp.): A review of reproductive physiology for developing assisted reproductive techniques". Animal Reproduction. 15 (4): 1181–1192. doi:10.21451/1984-3143-ar2018-0058. PMC 8203115. PMID 34221130.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Reid, Fiona A. (1997). A Field Guide to the Mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico. Oxford University Press. pp. 242–244. ISBN 9780195343236.
  6. ^ Aliaga-Rossel, Enzo; Kays, Roland W.; Fragoso, José M. V. (2008). "Home-range use by the Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) on Barro Colorado Island, Panama". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 24 (4): 367–374. doi:10.1017/s0266467408005129.
  7. ^ a b c d Guimara˜es PR Jr, Jose J, Galetti M, et al. Quinolizidine alkaloids in Ormosia arborea seeds inhibit predation but not hoarding by agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina). J Chem Ecol 2003;29(5):1065–72.
  8. ^ Ronald Nowak (1999), Walker's Mammals of the World
  9. ^ a b c d e f Vázquez, E. (2008, June 30). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/6285/12596623
  10. ^ Weigl, R. (2005). Longevity of mammals in captivity; from the living collections of the world.
  11. ^ a b c d Henry O. Frugivory and the importance of seeds in the diet of the orange-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta leporine) in French Guiana. J Trop Ecol 1999;15:291–300.
  12. ^ a b Dubost G, Henry O. Comparison of diets of the acouchy, agouti and paca, the three largest terrestrial rodents of French Guianan forests. J Trop Ecol 2006;22: 641–51.
  13. ^ Dubost G. Ecology and social life of the red acouchy, Myoprocta exilis; comparison with the orange-rumped agouti, Dasyprocta leporina. J Zool 1988;214: 107–23.
  14. ^ Hoch GA, Adler GH. Removal of black palm (Astrocaryum standleyanum) seeds by spiny rats (Proechimys semispinosus). J Trop Ecol 1997;13:51–8.
  15. ^ Silvius KM. Spatio-temporal patterns of palm endocarp use by three Amazonian forest mammals: granivory or ‘‘grubivory’’? J Trop Ecol 2002;18:707–23.
  16. ^ Laska M, Baltazar JML, Luna ER. Food preferences and nutrient composition in captive pacas, Agouti paca (Rodentia, Dasyproctidae). Mamm Biol 2003;68: 31–41.
  17. ^ Lee TE Jr, Hartline HB, Barnes BM. Dasyprocta ruatanica. Mammalian Species 2006;800:1–3.
  18. ^ Peres CA, Schiesari LC, Diasleme CL. Vertebrate predation of Brazil-nuts (Bertholletia excelsa, Lecythidaceae), an agouti-dispersed Amazonian seed crop: a test of the escape hypothesis. J Trop Ecol 1997;13:69–79.
  19. ^ Silva MG, Tabarelli M. Seed dispersal, plant recruitment and spatial distribution of Bactris acanthocarpa Martius (Arecaceae) in a remnant of Atlantic forest in northeast Brazil. Acta Oecol 2001;22:259–68.
  20. ^ a b Guimara˜es PR Jr, Gomes BZ, Ahn YJ, et al. Cache pilferage in redrumped agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina) (Rodentia). Mammalia 2005;69(3–4): 431–4.
  21. ^ Dubost G, Henry O, Comizzoli P. Seasonality of reproduction in the three largest terrestrial rodents. Mamm Biol 2005;70(2):93–109.
  22. ^ a b c Smythe N. The natural history of the Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata). Smithsonian Contrib Zool 1978;257:1–52.
  23. ^ Eisenberg JF, Redford KH. Mammals of the neotropics: the central neotropics, vol. 3. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 1999.
  24. ^ a b c Landry SO Jr. The Rodentia as omnivores. Q Rev Biol 1970;45(4):351–72.
  25. ^ a b c Townsend KEB, Croft DA. Enamel microwear in caviomorph rodents. J Mammal 2008;89(3):730–43.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g "Agouti | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants". animals.sandiegozoo.org. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Mittelman, Pedro; Dracxler, Caroline Marques; Santos‐Coutinho, Pollyanna R. O.; Pires, Alexandra S. (November 2021). "Sowing forests: a synthesis of seed dispersal and predation by agoutis and their influence on plant communities". Biological Reviews. 96 (6): 2425–2445. doi:10.1111/brv.12761. ISSN 1464-7931.
  28. ^ a b Barbosa DFSF , Silva JBA , Oliveira MF , Araujo SAC. Avaliação qualitativa de carnes de catetos (Tayassu tajacu , LINNAEUS, 1758) e cutias (Dasyprocta aguti, Linnaeus, 1758) Criados em cativeiro. Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido; Mossoró, RN: 2010. Dissertação Mestrado.
  29. ^ a b c Borroto-Páez, Rafael (December 2009). "Invasive mammals in Cuba: an overview". Biological Invasions. 11 (10): 2279–2290. Bibcode:2009BiInv..11.2279B. doi:10.1007/s10530-008-9414-z. ISSN 1387-3547.
  30. ^ a b c Ramírez-Bautista, Arturo; Thorne, James H.; Schwartz, Mark W.; Williams, John N. (2020). "Trait-based climate vulnerability of native rodents in southwestern Mexico". Ecology and Evolution. 10 (12): 5864–5876. Bibcode:2020EcoEv..10.5864R. doi:10.1002/ece3.6323. PMC 7319118. PMID 32607196.
  31. ^ Estrada, A.; Coates-Estrada, R.; Meritt, D.; Montiel, S.; Curiel, D. (1993). "Patterns of Frugivore Species Richness and Abundance in Forest Islands and in Agricultural Habitats at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico". Vegetatio. 107/108: 245–257. doi:10.1007/BF00052227. ISSN 0042-3106. JSTOR 20046313.
  32. ^ a b Guérin-Méneville, F.-É.; Guérin-Méneville, F.-É; Cuvierienne, Société (1860). Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée. Vol. sér.2:t.12 (1860). Paris: Bureau de la Revue et Magasin de Zoologie.
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