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Commercial Crew Program

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Commercial Crew Program
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Logo since 2014
Program overview
CountryUnited States
Organization
PurposeISS crew transport
StatusOngoing
Program history
Duration2011–present
First flight
Successes7
Launch site(s)
Vehicle information
Crewed vehicle(s)
Launch vehicle(s)
Part of a series on the
United States space program
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NASA Astronaut Corps
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Commercial space industry
The Crew Dragon (left) and Starliner (right) approaching the ISS on their respective missions.

The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft, and NASA plans to add Boeing when its Boeing Starliner spacecraft becomes operational no earlier than 2025.[1] NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.[2]

The spacecraft are owned and operated by the vendor, and crew transportation is provided to NASA as a commercial service. Each mission sends up to four astronauts to the ISS. Operational flights occur approximately once every six months for missions that last for approximately six months. A spacecraft remains docked to the ISS during its mission, and missions usually overlap by at least a few days. Between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first operational CCP mission in 2020, NASA relied on the Soyuz program to transport its astronauts to the ISS.

A Crew Dragon spacecraft is launched to space atop a Falcon 9 Block 5 launch vehicle and the capsule returns to Earth via splashdown in the ocean near Florida. The program's first operational mission, SpaceX Crew-1, launched on 16 November 2020. Boeing Starliner spacecraft will participate after its final test flight, launched atop an Atlas V N22 launch vehicle. Instead of a splashdown, a Starliner capsule will return on land with airbags at one of four designated sites in the western United States.

Development of the Commercial Crew Program began in 2011 as NASA shifted from internal development of crewed vehicles to perform ISS crew rotation to commercial industry development of transport to the ISS. A series of open competitions over the following two years saw successful bids from Boeing, Blue Origin, Sierra Nevada, and SpaceX to develop proposals for ISS crew transport vehicles. In 2014, NASA awarded separate fixed-price contracts to Boeing and SpaceX to develop their respective systems and to fly astronauts to the ISS. Each contract required four successful demonstrations to achieve human rating for the system: pad abort, uncrewed orbital test, launch abort, and crewed orbital test. Operational missions were initially planned to begin in 2017, with missions alternating between the two providers. Delays required NASA to purchase additional seats on Soyuz spacecraft up to Soyuz MS-17 until Crew Dragon missions commenced in 2020. Crew Dragon continues to handle all missions until Starliner becomes operational no earlier than 2025.[1]

Background

[edit]

In 2004, the Aldridge Commission – established by President George W. Bush following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster – called for crewed flights to the Moon with a Crew Exploration Vehicle in its final report.[3][4] Following the NASA Authorization Act of 2005, the Constellation program was established,[5] which envisioned a revised Crew Exploration Vehicle named Orion conducting crew rotation flights to the International Space Station (ISS) in addition to its lunar exploration goals.[5][6][7] Orion superseded the Orbital Space Plane,[8][9] which was specifically designed for ISS crew rotation.[10] In 2009, the Augustine Commission appointed by President Barack Obama found that the program's funding and resources were insufficient to execute its goals without significant delays to its schedule and an increase of US$3 billion in funding,[11] which prompted NASA to start considering alternatives to the program.[12] The Constellation program was officially cancelled in 2010,[13] with NASA repurposing Orion for exploration beyond Earth,[14] and collaborating with commercial partners for ISS crew rotation and other crewed activities in low Earth orbit following the retirement of the Space Shuttle program in 2011.[13][15][16] This arrangement would additionally end NASA's dependency on Roscosmos' Soyuz program to deliver its astronauts to the ISS.[17][18]

Development

[edit]
Main article: Development of the Commercial Crew Program

CCDev awards

[edit]
A spaceplane sits on a runway
Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser, non-selected finalist

The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 allocated US$1.3 billion for an expansion of the existing Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program over three years.[13] While the program's first round of competition in 2010 focused on funding development of various human spaceflight technologies in the private sector as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act,[19][20] its second round, CCDev 2, focused on proposals for spacecraft capable of shuttling astronauts to and from the ISS.[21][22] The competition for CCDev 2 funding concluded in April 2011,[22] with Blue Origin receiving US$22 million to develop its biconic nose cone capsule concept,[23] SpaceX receiving US$75 million to develop a crewed version of their Dragon spacecraft and a human-rated Falcon 9 launch vehicle,[24] the Sierra Nevada Corporation receiving US$80 million to develop the Dream Chaser,[25] and Boeing receiving US$92.3 million to develop the CST-100 Starliner.[25] SpaceX had previously been contracted by NASA to operate ISS resupply flights with their Dragon spacecraft, as part of NASA's Commercial Resupply Services.[26][27] The program's third round, Commercial Crew integrated Capability (CCiCap),[28] aimed to financially support the development of winning proposals over 21 months through to May 2014, in preparation for crewed missions to the ISS within five years.[28][29][30] Despite winning awards in CCDev 1 and CCDev 2, Blue Origin decided against competing in CCiCap, opting instead to rely on private investment from their owner, Jeff Bezos, to continue development on crewed spaceflight.[31][32] The competition for CCiCap funding ended in August 2012, with US$212.5 million allocated to Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser, US$440 million allocated to SpaceX's Crew Dragon, and US$460 million allocated to Boeing's Starliner.[30][33][34] While Alliant Techsystems's integrated Liberty launch vehicle and spacecraft was a finalist, it was rejected due to concerns about the lack of detail in Alliant Techsystems's proposal.[35]

Operational crewed spacecraft (at least orbital class) as of Oct. 2024

In December 2012, the three CCiCap winners were each given an additional USD$10 million in funding as the first of two series of "certification products contracts" (CPC) to allow for further testing, engineering standards, and design analysis to meet NASA's safety requirements for crewed spaceflight.[17][36][37] The second CPC series manifested as Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap), the final phase of the CCDev program, where NASA would certify an operator to run crewed flights to the ISS through an open competition.[36][37] The window for proposal submissions was closed on 22 January 2014.[36] Sierra Nevada announced a week later that a privately funded orbital test flight of a Dream Chaser spacecraft, using an Atlas V launch vehicle intended to be purchased by Sierra Nevada, was planned to occur on 1 November 2016.[38][39] On 16 September 2014, CCtCap concluded with SpaceX's Crew Dragon and Boeing's Starliner being the sole winners, with SpaceX receiving US$2.6 billion contract and Boeing a US$4.2 billion contract.[40][41] Sierra Nevada filed a protest with the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in response, citing "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."[42][43] The United States Court of Federal Claims upheld a decision to allow development of the Crew Dragon and Starliner to proceed during the protest,[44][45] citing concerns for crewed operations of the ISS in the event of a delay to the Commercial Crew Program.[45][46] The GAO declined Sierra Nevada's protest in January 2015, stating that evidence gathered by the GAO discredited Sierra Nevada's claims against NASA; Sierra Nevada accepted the decision.[47][48] The company laid off 90 staff members working on the Dream Chaser following the CCtCap result, and repurposed the spacecraft as a for-hire vehicle for commercial spaceflight.[49][50][51] A cargo variant of the Dream Chaser would later be developed and selected by NASA to fly uncrewed resupply missions to the ISS under a Commercial Resupply Services 2 contract.[52][53]

Post-selection

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Crew Dragon C204 (right), later destroyed during testing

While the first flights of Commercial Crew Program were originally intended to be launched by the end of 2017,[54] Boeing announced in May 2016 that their first crewed flight would be delayed to 2018 due to problems integrating with Starliner's Atlas V N22 launch vehicle.[55][56] In December 2016, SpaceX announced their first crewed flights would also be delayed to 2018,[57][58] following the loss of AMOS-6 in an accidental launch pad explosion of a Falcon 9, the Crew Dragon's launch vehicle.[58][59] With no further flights in the Soyuz program for American astronauts past 2018,[60] the GAO expressed concerns and recommended in February 2017 that NASA develop a plan for crew rotation in the event of further delays.[61] Following the settlement of a lawsuit against Russian space manufacturer Energia over Sea Launch, Boeing received options for up to five seats on Soyuz flights, which NASA purchased from Boeing.[62][63] NASA announced the astronauts chosen to pilot the Crew Dragon and Starliner vehicles in August 2018,[64][65][66] and two months later penned the launch of demonstration missions for the Crew Dragon and Starliner for dates in 2019.[67][68] The uncrewed SpaceX Demo-1 mission was launched on 2 March 2019,[69] in which a Crew Dragon successfully docked with the ISS and returned to Earth six days after launch.[70][71] The capsule used in the mission, however, was accidentally destroyed in a static fire test of its SuperDraco engines in April 2019,[72][73][74] causing further delays to launch of future Crew Dragon flights.[74][75] The Boeing Orbital Flight Test and Boeing Crew Flight Test, which had both been delayed due to a failed test of Starliner's abort system,[76][77] were further pushed without explanation from dates in early-to-mid 2019 to late 2019.[78][79][80]

Boeing conducted the Boeing Pad Abort Test in November 2019.[81][82] NASA accepted the test as successful even though one of three parachutes failed to deploy, since the system landed as designed under two parachutes.[83][84] Boeing conducted the Orbital Flight Test in December 2019 and encountered major malfunctions of Starliner's software which precluded an intended docking with the ISS and prompted a truncation of the mission.[85][86][87] The Orbital Flight Test was declared a "high-visibility close call" by NASA following an independent review,[i][89][92] and a second Orbital Flight Test (Boeing OFT-2) was scheduled for July 2021,[93] with Boeing covering the cost of the flight in lieu of additional CCDev funding.[94][95] Amid further uncertainties about the Commercial Crew Program's progress, NASA purchased a seat on the Soyuz MS-17 mission to ensure participation in Expedition 64 in the event that operational missions in the program are further delayed,[96][97] with the purchase of additional Soyuz seats beyond MS-17 being described as a possibility.[96][97] The SpaceX In-Flight Abort Test was successfully conducted in January 2020,[98][99][100] setting the stage for the final, crewed test flight of Crew Dragon – SpaceX Demo-2 – which launched astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley to the ISS in May 2020.[100] SpaceX launched its first operational flight, SpaceX Crew-1, on 16 November 2020. It stayed docked to the ISS as planned until 2 May 2021. SpaceX Crew-2 launched on 23 April 2021 and it landed on 9 November 2021, two days before the launch of SpaceX Crew-3. When Boeing OFT-2 was on the pad preparing for launch on 3 August 2021, problems were encountered with 13 valves in the capsule's propulsion system. The launch was scrubbed, and the capsule eventually returned to the factory. Analysis of the problem was still underway in September 2021 and launch was postponed indefinitely. This uncrewed test, Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2, launched on 19 May 2022, and landed successfully on 25 May.[101][102]

Both commercial Crew vehicles Crew Dragon and Starliner docked to ports on harmony module at the same time

On February 28, 2022, NASA announced that it had awarded three additional crew missions to SpaceX bringing the total crew missions for SpaceX to nine and the total contract value to $3,490,872,904.[103] In September 2022, NASA announced yet another addition, this time of five missions, bringing the total to fourteen and the total contract value to $4.93 billion.[2]

Spacecraft

[edit]

The Commercial Crew Program uses the SpaceX Crew Dragon to shuttle astronauts to and from the ISS.[40][41][104] The Boeing CST-100 Starliner will join it in this role after it is human-rated. Both spacecraft are automated but can be remotely controlled from the ground or manually controlled by their crew via touch screens in case of an emergency.[105][106] The crew cabins of both spacecraft feature 11 cubic meters (390 cubic feet) of pressurized volume,[106][107][108] and can be configured to carry up to seven crew each, though NASA will only send up to four crew on each mission in the program; an extension to occupy a fifth seat is available to NASA.[104][109] Both spacecraft are certified to last up to 210 days[ii] docked to the ISS.[110][111][112] In addition, the spacecraft were designed to meet NASA's per-mission safety standard of a 1-in-270 chance of catastrophic failure, which is less risky than the 1-in-90 chance of the Space Shuttle.[113]

The spacecraft and the ISS have docking mechanisms that implement the International Docking System Standard (IDSS).[114] The NASA Docking System implementation is used by Starliner and ISS,[115] while Crew Dragon uses a compatible IDSS implementation developed by SpaceX.[114] The IDSS docks are used instead of the Common Berthing Mechanism used by previous Commercial Orbital Transportation Services spacecraft such as the first-generation Dragon.[116]

Commercial Crew Program vehicles docked to ISS at the same time

Crew Dragon

[edit]
Main article: SpaceX Dragon 2

SpaceX's Crew Dragon is a variant of the company's Dragon 2 class of spacecraft, which is an upgraded version of the first-generation Dragon.[117][118] It measures 3.7 meters (12 feet) wide, 4.4 meters (14 feet) tall without its trunk, and 7.2 meters (24 feet) with its trunk.[108][119] While trunks are discarded prior to capsule reentry,[120] crew cabins are designed to be reusable.[120][121] After earlier plans of SpaceX to use new capsules for every crewed flight for NASA[122] both agreed to reuse Crew Dragon capsules for NASA flights.[123][124] In 2022, SpaceX stated that a capsule can be reused up to fifteen times.[125] Crew Dragon spacecraft can spend up to a week in free flight without being docked to the ISS.[126] Each Crew Dragon capsule is equipped with a launch escape system consisting of eight of SpaceX's SuperDraco engines, which provide 71,000 newtons (16,000 pounds-force) of thrust each.[127][128][129] These engines were originally intended to also perform a propulsive landing upon return to Earth, with the first test vehicle having been equipped for such capabilities,[130][131] but these plans were ultimately abandoned in favor of a traditional splashdown return near Florida in either the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico.[132][133] SpaceX's CCtCap contract values each seat on a Crew Dragon flight to be between US$60–67 million on the first six missions,[134] while the face value of each seat has been estimated by NASA's Office of Inspector General (OIG) to be around US$55 million.[135][136][137] Per-mission cost for the first contract extension (missions 7, 8, and 9) is $258.7 million ($64.6 million/seat), and per-mission cost for the second contract extension (missions 10 through 14) is $288 million ($72 million/seat).[2]

Starliner

[edit]
Main article: Boeing Starliner

Boeing's CST-100 Starliner – "CST" an acronym for "Crew Space Transportation" – measures 4.6 meters (15 feet) in diameter and 5.1 meters (17 feet) in height.[106][107][138] The crew module of Starliner can be reused for up to ten flights, while the service module is expended during each flight.[115][139] Various engines manufactured by Aerojet Rocketdyne for orbital maneuvering, attitude control, reaction control, and launch escape, are utilized by Starliner.[140] Eight reaction control engines on the spacecraft's crew module and 28 reaction control engines on the spacecraft's service module provide 380 newtons (85 pounds-force) and 445 newtons (100 pounds-force) each, respectively.[141][142] Also located on the service module, 20 custom-made Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines provide 6,700 newtons (1,500 pounds-force) of thrust each,[140][141][142] while four RS-88 engines provide 178,000 newtons (40,000 pounds-force) of thrust each in a launch abort scenario.[129][140][143] During a nominal flight without a launch abort, Starliner can use unspent fuel reserved for its RS-88 engines to help its OMAC engines perform the orbital insertion burn, following separation from the Centaur upper stage during launch.[141] Once in space, Starliner spacecraft can survive up to 60 hours in free flight.[112] Unlike Crew Dragon, Starliner is designed to return to Earth on land instead of ocean, using airbags to cushion the vehicle's impact with the ground.[144][145] Four sites in the western contiguous United States – the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, Edwards Air Force Base in California, White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, and Willcox Playa in Arizona – will serve as landing ranges for returning Starliner spacecraft,[145] though in an emergency scenario, it is also equipped to perform a splashdown return.[146] Boeing's CCtCap contract values each seat on a CST-100 flight to be between US$91–99 million,[134] while the face value of each seat has been estimated by NASA's OIG to be around US$90 million.[135][136][137]

Missions

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NASA missions to the ISS launch on an average every six months. As part of the original contracts Boeing and SpaceX each were initially contracted for up to six operational flights.[147][148] NASA later contracted with SpaceX for up to an additional eight flights as a contingency if Starliner is further delayed and to ensure service to the ISS until 2030.[2]

Crew Dragon Missions

[edit]
Main article: SpaceX Dragon 2 § List of flights

SpaceX's Crew-1 mission, the first operational flight in the program, carried Victor Glover, Mike Hopkins, Soichi Noguchi, and Shannon Walker to the ISS in November 2020 aboard Resilience.[149][150][151][152][153] Resilience was originally planned to be used for Crew-2, but was reassigned following a scheduling change resulting from the accidental destruction of C204 during testing.[152] While NASA astronauts were given assignments to either Crew Dragon or Starliner flights, Noguchi – a JAXA astronaut – was open for assignment to whichever spacecraft would launch the first operational mission.[154] With Chris Cassidy having arrived at the ISS during Soyuz MS-16, the arrival of the astronauts aboard Resilience marked the first time since the Space Shuttle program in which the US Orbital Segment of the ISS was completely staffed with four crew.[148][155] Crew-2 launched in April 2021, using a previously-flown Falcon 9 first-stage booster and a refurbished Crew Dragon for the first time.[153][156][157] The mission carried Shane Kimbrough, Megan McArthur, Akihiko Hoshide and Thomas Pesquet aboard Endeavour.[158] Crew-3 launched in November 2021, carrying Thomas Marshburn, Raja Chari, Matthias Maurer and Kayla Barron to the ISS,[159][160][161] and Crew-4 launched Kjell Lindgren, Bob Hines, Samantha Cristoforetti and Jessica Watkins in April 2022.[162][163][164][165] US astronauts Josh Cassada, Nicole Aunapu Mann and JAXA astronaut Koichi Wakata initially assigned to Starliner crewed flights were reassigned to Crew-5 mission after delays in the Starliner program.[166][167] The fourth astronaut on Crew-5 is filled by a Russian cosmonaut Anna Kikina and thus becoming to be a part of the Soyuz-Dragon crew swap system, that is, keeping at least one NASA astronaut and one Roscosmos cosmonaut on each of the crew rotation missions. That would ensure both countries would have a presence on the station, and ability to maintain their separate systems, if either Soyuz or commercial crew vehicles are grounded for an extended period.[168]

On 3 December 2021, NASA made clear it would secure up to an additional three flights from SpaceX to maintain an uninterrupted U.S. capability for human access to the space station.[169] The background to this was that SpaceX was likely to launch its sixth flight in early 2023 potentially before Boeing's first operational flight,[170] and NASA concluded that only SpaceX had the capability needed.

NASA and Roscosmos have agreed to an annual seat-swapping agreement for three flights each. In 2022, 2023, and 2024, a Russian cosmonaut will fly on one Crew Dragon flight per year while an American astronaut will fly on one Soyuz flight per year. This arrangement ensures that ISS will have at least one crew member to operate essential services even if one or the other type of spacecraft is grounded.[171]

On 31 August 2022, NASA awarded SpaceX with an additional 5 flights bringing the total number of contracted Crew Dragon flights to 14. The additional flights will run through 2030.[172]

The Crew-8 and Crew-9 missions were both modified in response to the unexpected need to support the crew of the Boeing Crew Flight Test (CFT), which visited ISS during the Crew-8 mission. Problems with the Boeing spacecraft caused NASA to extend its mission and ultimately to bring the spacecraft back to Earth without crew. The Crew-8 mission was extended and its Dragon was fitted with two additional makeshift crew seats to allow it to serve as a "lifeboat" for the CFT crew if evacuation had been needed before Crew-9 arrived. The Crew-9 launch was delayed and Crew-9 modified to launch with only two crew and two empty seats. When Crew-9 arrived at ISS, the crew of CFT became members of the Crew-9 crew and will return on Crew-9 at the end of its mission.[173]

Boeing Starliner Missions

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Main article: Boeing Starliner § List of flights

As of October 2024, the first operational flight has not been scheduled.[174] It depends on successful completion of a Crewed Flight Test.[175]

NASA hopes to extend the seat-swapping arrangement with Roscosmos to include Starliner flights after Starliner has enough flights, which will be no earlier than the Starliner-2 flight.[176]

Operational CCP missions

[edit]
Mission Patch Launch date Launch vehicle[a] Spacecraft[b] Duration Crew
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-1
 15 November 2020 Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1061.1) 		Crew Dragon
(C207.1 Resilience) 		167d, 6h, 29m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-2
 23 April 2021 Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1061.2) 		Crew Dragon
(C206.2 Endeavour) 		199d, 17h, 44m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-3
 11 November 2021[159] Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1067.2) 		Crew Dragon
(C210.1 Endurance) 		176d, 2h, 39m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-4
 27 April 2022 Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1067.4) 		Crew Dragon
(C212.1 Freedom) 		170d, 13h, 3m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-5
 5 October 2022[177] Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1077.1) 		Crew Dragon
(C210.2 Endurance) 		157d, 10h, 1m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-6
 2 March 2023[179] Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1078.1) 		Crew Dragon
(C206.4 Endeavour) 		185d, 22h, 42m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-7
 26 August 2023[181] Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1081.1) 		Crew Dragon
(C210.3 Endurance) 		199d, 2h, 20m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-8
 4 March 2024 Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1083.1) 		Crew Dragon
(C206.5 Endeavour) 		235d, 3h, 36m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-9
 28 September 2024[183] Falcon 9 Block 5
(B1085.2) 		Crew Dragon
(C212.4 Freedom) 		Docked at ISS
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-10
 NET February 2025[174] Falcon 9 Block 5 Crew Dragon (C213.1) Planned
NET July 2025[174] Falcon 9 Block 5 Crew Dragon Planned TBD
  1. ^ Falcon 9 first-stage boosters have a four-digit serial number. A decimal point followed by a number indicates the flight count. For example, B1061.1 and B1061.2 represent the first and second flights of booster B1061.
  2. ^ A decimal point followed by a number indicates the flight count. For example, C207.1 and C207.2 represent the first and second flights of Dragon C207, Crew Dragon Resilience.

Timeline

[edit]

The CCP spacecraft missions usually overlap with brief intervals during which two are docked at the same time. Crew-2 did not overlap with Crew-3 because of an unexpected delay of the Crew-3 launch.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Sources

  1. Reichhardt, Tony (August 2018). "Astronauts, Your Ride's Here!". Air & Space/Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  2. Howell, Elizabeth (8 August 2018). "How Boeing's Commercial CST-100 Starliner Spacecraft Works". Space.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  3. Wall, Mike (3 August 2018). "Crew Dragon and Starliner: A Look at the Upcoming Astronaut Taxis". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.

Citations

  1. ^ a b Scott, Heather (12 October 2023). "NASA Updates Commercial Crew Planning Manifest". NASA. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d Foust, Jeff (1 September 2022). ""NASA and SpaceX finalize extension of commercial crew contract"". spacenews.com. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  3. ^ King, John; O'Brien, Miles (15 January 2004). "Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The initial spurt of new funding will be used to begin work on what a "crew exploration vehicle," which O'Keefe said will "look totally different" from the space shuttle. [...] Lunar missions will begin between 2015 and 2020.
  4. ^ Dinkin, Sam (25 October 2004). "Implementing the vision". The Space Review. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Eleven companies have been selected "to conduct preliminary concept studies for human lunar exploration and the development of the crew exploration vehicle."
  5. ^ a b Neubek, Deborah J.; Rattigan, Jennifer L.; Stegemoeller, Charles; Thomas, L. Dale (20 May 2011). "Constellation program Lessons Learned; Volume I: Executive Summary" (PDF). NASA History Office. pp. 2–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA formed the Constellation Program in 2005 [...] The Initial Capability (IC) comprised elements necessary to service the ISS by 2015 with crew rotations: including the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, the Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle, and the supporting ground and mission infrastructure to enable these missions.
  6. ^ BBC News staff (23 August 2006). "Nasa names new spacecraft 'Orion'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The vehicle will be capable of transporting cargo and up to six crew members to and from the International Space Station. It can carry four astronauts for lunar missions.
  7. ^ Malik, Tariq (19 September 2005). "NASA's New Moon Plans: 'Apollo on Steroids'". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The spacecraft, NASA's Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), could even carry six-astronaut crews to the International Space Station (ISS) or fly automated resupply shipments as needed, NASA chief Michael Griffin said.
  8. ^ Cowing, Keith L.; Sietzen, Frank Jr. (7 August 2005). "NASA's New Launch Systems May Include the Return of the Space Tug". SpaceRef. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Following the Columbia accident in February 2003, planning for the OSP was placed on hold. Eventually, the OSP would be superseded-or morphed into-the requirements for what eventually became the CEV.
  9. ^ Dinerman, Taylor (31 January 2005). "What do we do with the ISS?". The Space Review. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The big question for the next NASA administrator will be whether he going to reverse the decision to delete the ISS service role from the Crew Exploration Vehicle's mission. [...] The CEV was sold at least partly on the basis that it would replace the planned Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was supposed to be a true multipurpose manned spacecraft.
  10. ^ Marshall Space Flight Center (1 May 2003). "Fact sheet number: FS-2003-05-64-MSFC". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Based largely on existing technologies, the Orbital Space Plane would provide safe, affordable access to the International Space Station. The Orbital Space Plane will be able to support a Space Station crew rotation of four to six months.
  11. ^ Sunseri, Gina (22 October 2009). "Augustine Commission: NASA's Plans 'Unsustainable'". ABC News. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2019. To get to the moon and then eventually go on to Mars will take much more money and technology than the U.S. space program has now, according to a report released today by an independent panel convened, at White House request [...] Keep Ares and Orion going -- but recognize they probably won't be ready for regular use until 2017. [...] To do all this, the panel said NASA would need substantially more funding -- an additional $3 billion annually starting next year.
  12. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (21 October 2009). "NASA Administrator Orders Study of Heavy Lift Alternatives". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Looking at alternatives to the Constellation program is an apparent reaction to the final Augustine Commission report, which will be made public on Thursday.
  13. ^ a b c Amos, Jonathan (30 September 2010). "US politicians cement a new philosophy for Nasa". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. It authorises $1.3bn over the next three years for commercial companies to begin taxiing crew to the International Space Station (ISS). [...] It brings to an end the Bush-era Constellation programme which had set the agency the task of going back to the Moon.
  14. ^ Malik, Tariq (6 April 2010). "NASA's New Asteroid Mission Could Save the Planet". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. He pledged to revive the Orion spacecraft, initially cancelled along the rest of NASA's Constellation program building new rockets and spacecraft. Now [it will play a role] in deep space missions, Obama said.
  15. ^ Matson, John (1 February 2010). "Phased Out: Obama's NASA Budget Would Cancel Constellation Moon Program, Privatize Manned Launches". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Obama's blueprint for NASA would cancel the Constellation program, the family of rockets and hardware now in development to replace the aging space shuttle, and would call instead on commercial vendors to fly astronauts to orbit.
  16. ^ Malik, Tariq (1 February 2010). "Obama Budget Scraps NASA Moon Plan for '21st Century Space Program'". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...and offers $6 billion over five years to support commercially built spaceships to launch NASA astronauts into space.
  17. ^ a b Perrotto, Trent; Thomas, Candrea (10 December 2012). "NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...the certification products contracts (CPC) [will ensure] crew transportation systems will meet agency safety requirements and standards to launch American astronauts to the International Space Station from the United States, ending the agency's reliance on Russia for these transportation services. [...] This includes data that will result in developing engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems design.
  18. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "A pair of privately owned spaceships, Boeing's Starliner and SpaceX's Crew Dragon, are set to make their debut within the next few months [...] ending NASA's post-space-shuttle reliance on the Soyuz to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station."
  19. ^ Byerly, Josh; Edwards, Ashley; Hautaluoma, Grey (1 February 2010). "NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Through an open competition for funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, NASA has awarded Space Act Agreements...
  20. ^ Foust, Jeff (4 February 2011). "CCDev awardees one year later: where are they now?". NewSpace Journal. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA announced a set of Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) awards, using $50 million they agency got as part of a larger grant of stimulus funding.
  21. ^ Rhian, Jason (20 December 2010). "Numerous Companies Propose Possible 'Space Taxis'". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. With NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev 2, and the encouragement of commercial space firms to produce their own vehicles, the number of potential 'space-taxis' has swelled, with virtually every established and up-and-coming space company either producing – or proposing one.
  22. ^ a b Moskowitz, Clara (28 April 2011). "Four Companies at Forefront of Commercial Space Race". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Four private companies are the leaders in the effort to build commercial spaceships to carry astronauts to low-Earth orbit and the International Space Station after the space shuttles retire. NASA recently handed out the second wave of contracts in its Commercial Crew Development program...
  23. ^ Bergin, Chris (18 April 2011). "Four companies win big money via NASA's CCDEV-2 awards". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Blue Origin's $22m award is for their their [sic] biconic-shape capsule, of which very little is currently in the public domain.
  24. ^ Sauser, Brittany (22 April 2011). "Private Spacecrafts to Carry Humans Get NASA Funding". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), which currently has a contract to carry cargo to the International Space Station, will receive $75 million to make its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon space capsule ready for humans...
  25. ^ a b Clark, Stephen (25 April 2011). "Four firms plan to get the most out of NASA investment". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Boeing received the largest Commercial Crew Development award, an agreement valued at $92.3 million, to finish the preliminary design of the CST-100 capsule [...] Sierra Nevada received $20 million in the first CCDev competition in February 2010, using that funding to develop manufacturing tooling, fire a Dream Chaser maneuvering engine and deliver parts of a structural mock-up of the spacecraft.
  26. ^ Bergin, Chris; Smith, Ron (1 October 2012). "Orbital's Antares closing in on debut launch following pad arrival". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Orbital and SpaceX won a combined 3.5 billion dollars Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract back in 2008...
  27. ^ Tann, Nick (8 October 2012). "SpaceX successfully launches first International Space Station re-supply mission". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Last night, SpaceX launched more than 1,000 pounds of supplies bound for the International Space Station on the first of 12 missions in its 1.6 billion USD contract with NASA.
  28. ^ a b Atkinson, Nancy (3 August 2012). "NASA Announces Winners in Commercial Crew Funding; Which Company Will Get to Space First?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA announced today the winners of the third round of commercial crew development funding, called the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap). [...] NASA said these awards will enable a launch of astronauts from U.S. soil in the next five years. [...] each company negotiated how much work they could get done in the 21-month period that this award covers.
  29. ^ Boyle, Alan (3 August 2012). "NASA announces $1.1 billion in support for a trio of spaceships". NBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA has committed $1.1 billion over the next 21 months to support spaceship development efforts by the Boeing Co., SpaceX and Sierra Nevada Corp., with the aim of having American astronauts flying once more on American spacecraft within five years.
  30. ^ a b Hardwood, William (3 August 2012). "NASA awards manned-spacecraft contracts". CNET. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. SpaceX was awarded a $440 million contract [...] Boeing won a contract valued at $460 million [...] Nevada was awarded $212.5 million [...] The CCiCap contracts will run between now and May 31, 2014
  31. ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). "NASA awards $1.1 billion to develop three commercial space taxis". collectSPACE. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Also not included in this latest round of funding was Blue Origin of Kent., Wash., a company owned by billionaire Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos that is developing private spacecraft for suborbital and orbital flights. The company did receive a NASA funding award in 2011 for its orbital crew vehicle, but wasn't among the seven vying for a spot in the CCiCap round, NASA officials said.
  32. ^ Foust, Jeff (18 December 2016). "Bezos Investment in Blue Origin Exceeds $500 Million". Space News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2019. "We got $25 million from the NASA commercial crew program, and that represents less than 5 percent of what our founder has put into the company," Alexander said. That would mean Bezos' investment in Blue Origin is at least $500 million.
  33. ^ Bergin, Chris (3 August 2012). "NASA CCiCAP funding for SpaceX, Boeing and SNC's crew vehicles". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. In the end, Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations Directorate William Gerstenmaier opted to award Boeing with $460m, SpaceX with $440 and SNC with $212.5m.
  34. ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). "NASA Awards $1.1 Billion in Support for 3 Private Space Taxis". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. As part of the new agreements, Sierra Nevada will receive $212.5 million, SpaceX will receive $440 million, and Boeing will receive $460 million.
  35. ^ Gerstenmaier, William H. (10 September 2012). "Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Integrated Capability". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Four proposals passed the Acceptability Screening and were evaluated by the full PEP [...] ATK Aerospace Systems (ATK)
  36. ^ a b c Boyle, Alan (19 November 2013). "NASA outlines the final steps in plan for next manned spaceships". NBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA expects the final phase of the competition — known as the Commercial Crew Transport Capability program, or CCtCAP — to result in a fleet of commercial spacecraft that are certified to transport crew by 2017. [...] Those same three companies have already been granted about $10 million each for Phase 1 of the CCtCAP certification process, which focuses on flight safety and performance requirements. [...] NASA said applications for Phase 2 funding should be submitted by Jan. 22.
  37. ^ a b Grondin, Yves-A. (5 August 2013). "NASA Outlines its Plans for Commercial Crew Certification". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...NASA outlined the next phase of its strategy to enable the certification of commercial crew transportation systems to and from the International Space Station (ISS). [...] Phase 1 of the certification strategy, the Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase, was awarded last December to SpaceX, SNC and Boeing for amounts that did not exceed $10 million per company.
  38. ^ Rutkin, Aviva (27 January 2014). "Mini space shuttle gears up to chase astronaut dreams". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Engineers at Sierra Nevada Corporation have announced that the Dream Chaser will make its first orbital flight on 1 November 2016. The Dream Chaser will launch attached to an Atlas V rocket...
  39. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (23 January 2014). "Sierra Nevada Dreamchaser Will Launch on First Orbital Flight Test in November 2016". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. "Today we're very proud to announce that we have now formally negotiated our orbital spaceflight," said Mark Sirangelo, the head of Sierra Nevada Space Systems. "We have acquired an Atlas V rocket and established a launch date of November 1, 2016...
  40. ^ a b Associated Press (17 September 2014). "SpaceX, Boeing land NASA contracts to carry astronauts to space". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. On Tuesday, the space agency picked Boeing and SpaceX to transport astronauts to the International Space Station [...] NASA will pay Boeing $4.2 billion and SpaceX $2.6 billion to certify, test and fly their crew capsules.
  41. ^ a b Wall, Mike (17 September 2014). "NASA Picks SpaceX and Boeing to Fly U.S. Astronauts on Private Spaceships". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. SpaceX and Boeing are splitting NASA's $6.8 billion Commercial Crew Transportation Capability award, or CCtCap [...] SpaceX will get $2.6 billion and Boeing will receive $4.2 billion, officials said.
  42. ^ Dean, James (26 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada files protest over NASA crew contract". Florida Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada Corp. has protested NASA's award of contracts worth up to $6.8 billion to Boeing and SpaceX to fly astronauts to the International Space Station. The U.S. Government Accountability Office must rule on the legal challenge by Jan. 5. [...] Sierra Nevada cited "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."
  43. ^ Keeney, Laura (3 October 2014). "So Sierra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?". The Denver Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Space Systems filed the formal protest with the U.S. Government Accountability Office on Sept. 26 over rejection of its bid for NASA's commercial crew contract to shuttle astronauts to the space station.
  44. ^ Rhian, Jason (23 October 2014). "Judge allows NASA to move forward on production of Commercial Crew spacecraft". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Judge Marian Blank Horn of the United States Court of Federal Claims has cleared the way for NASA to proceed with its plans to have Boeing and SpaceX develop their spacecraft under the Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap).
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  46. ^ Norris, Guy (11 October 2014). "Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA issued a stop-work order to Boeing and SpaceX on Oct 2, only to rescind it a week later on the grounds that a delay to development of the transportation service, "poses risks to the ISS crew, jeopardizes continued operation of the ISS, would delay meeting critical crew size requirements, and may result in the U.S. failing to perform the commitments it made in its international agreements."
  47. ^ Foust, Jeff (5 January 2015). "GAO Denies Sierra Nevada Protest of Commercial Crew Contract". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 21 May 2019. "Based on our review of the issues, we concluded that these arguments were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation," Smith said in the GAO statement. Sierra Nevada, in a statement issued Jan. 5, accepted the decision by the GAO...
  48. ^ Dean, James (5 January 2015). "Sierra Nevada loses Commercial Crew contract protest". Florida Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. GAO disagreed with Sierra Nevada's arguments about NASA's evaluation [...] Sierra Nevada also claimed NASA did not adequately review the realism of SpaceX's low bid and its financial resources, among several other issues the GAO concluded "were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation."
  49. ^ Rhian, Jason (26 September 2014). "SNC lays off staff, files protest over NASA CCP selections, mulls Dream Chaser's future – Update". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) has laid off employees who were working on the company's offering under NASA's Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Dream Chaser space plane. SNC has also stated that it will continue to develop the spacecraft for possible use with other nations' human-rated space programs...
  50. ^ SpaceRef staff (25 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Program to Continue". SpaceRef Business. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada's Mark Sirangelo told the Denver Post the companies plans to go forward with development of the spacecraft and bid on future contracts. The news companies on the heals [sic] of Sierra Nevada laying off 90 people from the Dream Chaser program.
  51. ^ Foust, Jeff (25 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada Lays Off Dream Chaser Staff". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. After losing a NASA commercial crew competition earlier this month, Sierra Nevada Corp. (SNC) has laid off about 100 employees who had been working on its Dream Chaser vehicle, the company confirmed Sept. 24.
  52. ^ Davenport, Christian; Fung, Brian (14 January 2016). "Sierra Nevada Corp. joins SpaceX and Orbital ATK in winning NASA resupply contracts". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. The nation's space agency selected three commercial companies for the next round of missions to resupply the International Space Station, giving a vote of confidence to incumbents SpaceX and Orbital ATK and choosing a new player, Sierra Nevada Corp.
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  56. ^ Boyle, Alan (11 May 2016). "Boeing's Starliner schedule for sending astronauts into orbit slips to 2018". GeekWire. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. ...it's been working through challenges related to the mass of the spacecraft and aeroacoustic issues related to integration with its United Launch Alliance Atlas 5 launch vehicle. In a follow-up to Caret's comments, Boeing spokeswoman Rebecca Regan told GeekWire that those factors contributed to the schedule slip.
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  73. ^ Wall, Mike (21 April 2019). "SpaceX Crew Dragon Accident Another Bump in the Road for Commercial Crew". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Nobody was injured, but the capsule — which flew a successful uncrewed demonstration mission to the International Space Station (ISS) just last month — may have incurred serious damage.
  74. ^ a b Berger, Eric (3 May 2019). "Dragon was destroyed just before the firing of its SuperDraco thrusters". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Koenigsmann said the "anomaly" occurred during a series of tests with the spacecraft, approximately one-half second before the firing of the SuperDraco thrusters. At that point, he said, "There was an anomaly and the vehicle was destroyed." [...] Before this accident, SpaceX and NASA had been targeting early October for the first crewed Dragon mission to the station. Now, that will almost certainly be delayed by at least several months into 2020.
  75. ^ Foust, Jeff (20 August 2019). "Commercial crew providers prepare for fall test flights". SpaceNews. Retrieved 21 August 2019. However, both an in-flight abort test and the Demo-2 crewed flight test were delayed after the Demo-1 spacecraft, being prepared for the in-flight abort test, was destroyed during preparations for a static-fire test in April at Cape Canaveral.
  76. ^ Foust, Jeff (2 August 2018). "Boeing delays Starliner uncrewed test flight after abort engine test problem". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing now plans to carry out an uncrewed test flight of its CST-100 Starliner commercial crew vehicle late this year or early next year as it addresses a problem found during a recent test of the spacecraft's abort engines. That revised schedule will push back a crewed test flight of the vehicle to the middle of 2019, said John Mulholland, vice president and program manager of Boeing's commercial crew program...
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  78. ^ Johnson, Eric M. (21 March 2019). "Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Boeing's first test flight was slated for April but it has been pushed to August, according to two people with direct knowledge of the matter. The new schedule means that Boeing's crewed mission, initially scheduled for August, will be delayed until November.
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  82. ^ Etherington, Darrell (5 November 2019). "Boeing's Starliner crew spacecraft launch pad abort test is a success". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. NASA's commercial crew partner Boeing has achieved a key milestone on the way to actually flying astronauts aboard its CST-100 Starliner: Demonstrating that its launch pad abort system works as designed, which is a key safety system that NASA requires to be in place before the aerospace company can put astronauts inside the Starliner.
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  94. ^ Davenport, Christian (7 April 2020). "After botched test flight, Boeing will refly its Starliner spacecraft for NASA". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The repeat flight likely will occur sometime in October or November, meaning the company probably won't fly a mission with astronauts on board this year [...] Repeating the mission and investigating other problems with Starliner is an expensive proposition: Earlier this year, Boeing said it was taking a $410 million charge to offset the cost.
  95. ^ Clark, Stephen (6 April 2020). "After problem-plagued test flight, Boeing will refly crew capsule without astronauts". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. [...] "We have chosen to refly our Orbital Flight Test to demonstrate the quality of the Starliner system," Boeing said in a statement [Monday]. "Flying another uncrewed flight will allow us to complete all flight test objectives and evaluate the performance of the second Starliner vehicle at no cost to the [taxpayer"]
  96. ^ a b TASS staff (13 May 2020). "Роскосмос подтвердил подписание контракта на доставку астронавта NASA на корабле "Союз"". TASS (in Russian). Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Roscosmos and NASA signed a contract for the delivery of one American astronaut on a crewed Soyuz MS spacecraft in Autumn 2020. [...] The head of NASA, Jim Bridenstein [...] also admitted the possibility of buying a second place.
  97. ^ a b Clark, Stephen (12 May 2020). "NASA inks deal with Roscosmos to ensure continuous U.S. presence on space station". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. "To ensure the agency keeps its commitment for safe operations via a continuous U.S. presence aboard the International Space Station until commercial crew capabilities are routinely available, NASA has completed negotiations with the State Space Corporation Roscosmos to purchase one additional Soyuz seat for a launch this fall," NASA said in a statement Tuesday. [...] NASA has not ruled out paying Russia's space agency for an additional Soyuz seat on a launch next April.
  98. ^ Atkinson, Ian (17 January 2020). "SpaceX conducts successful Crew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX successfully launched a unique Falcon 9 rocket at LC-39A for the in-flight abort test of their Crew Dragon spacecraft. The uncrewed test flight saw the spacecraft demonstrate its ability to escape a failing rocket mid-flight. Sunday's launch occurred at 10:30 AM Eastern, with a successful test resulting in the safe splashdown of the Dragon vehicle.
  99. ^ Sheetz, Michael (19 January 2020). "Fiery SpaceX test of Crew Dragon capsule was 'picture perfect,' Elon Musk says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX completed its last major test before flying astronauts to space on Sunday, in a critical high-speed mission that lasted mere minutes. [...] It's a crucial milestone for Musk's space company, as it will be key in determining whether NASA certifies the company's capsule to begin flying the agency's astronauts.
  100. ^ a b Grush, Loren (19 January 2020). "SpaceX successfully tests escape system on new spacecraft — while destroying a rocket". The Verge. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. On Sunday morning, SpaceX successfully launched one of its last big flight tests for NASA, a launch that could pave the way for the company to carry passengers into space later this year. [...] With this test now complete, the next big flight of the Crew Dragon will have people on board: NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.
  101. ^ Davenport, Christian (24 September 2021). "Nearly two months after discovering a problem with its Starliner spacecraft, Boeing is still searching for answers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
  102. ^ Josh Dinner (25 May 2022). "Touchdown! Boeing's Starliner returns to Earth from space station". Space.com. Retrieved 26 May 2022.
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  104. ^ a b Malik, Tariq (26 June 2019). "This Is SpaceX's 1st Crewed Dragon Spaceship Destined for Space". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. SpaceX's Crew Dragon, a crewed version of the company's robotic Dragon cargo ship, is one of two commercial space taxis that NASA will use to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner is the other. Both spacecraft are designed to carry up to seven astronauts.
  105. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Although the ships seem like a nod to the past—Apollo-style "capsules" instead of the spaceplanes astronauts rode to orbit for 30 years [...] Both the Starliner and Crew Dragon will travel to the station and dock automatically, with no astronaut input. (The crew can take manual control if something goes wrong.)"
  106. ^ a b c Wall 2018, "("CST," by the way, stands for "crew space transportation.") Starliner also features sleek touch-screen displays and has about the same amount of internal volume as the SpaceX capsule."
  107. ^ a b Howell 2018, "The Starliner has a diameter of 15 feet (4.5 meters); a length of 16.5 feet (5 m), which includes the service module; and a volume of about 390 cubic feet (11 cubic md)."
  108. ^ a b Wall 2018, "The gumdrop-shaped cargo Dragon is 14.4 feet tall and 12 feet wide at the base (4.4 by 3.7 meters), with 390 cubic feet (11 cubic meters) of internal volume."
  109. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Seating Capacity: Up to 7 NASA required that each vehicle be able to transport four people to and from the station. A fifth seat is available on both vehicles. Each company advertises a seating capacity of seven."
  110. ^ Howell 2018, "Once the Starliner is attached to the space station, it's designed to stay there for 210 days — ample time to allow for the usual crew stays of six months, or 180 days."
  111. ^ Etherington, Darrell (18 April 2020). "NASA and SpaceX set historic first astronaut launch for May 27". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020. That Crew Dragon, which is the fully operational version, is designed for stays of at least 210 days, and the crew complement of four astronauts, including three from NASA and one from Japan's space agency, is already determined.
  112. ^ a b Burghardt, Michael; Ingham, Jay; Lembeck, Michael F.; Reiley, Keith; Wood, Michael (1 May 2013). "Design Considerations for a Commercial Crew Transportation System" (PDF). The Boeing Company. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2020. The CST 100 can operate autonomously for up to 60 hours of free-flight [...] The vehicle can stay docked to a host complex for up to 210 days...
  113. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Designers are working to a challenging safety standard: a 1-in-270 chance of a fatal accident, as compared to the 1-in-90 chance calculated for the space shuttle by the time it retired in 2011."
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  115. ^ a b Szondy, David (4 April 2019). "First manned flight test of Boeing's Starliner to the ISS extended, but launch delayed". New Atlas. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. The Starliner is designed to be flown up to 10 times before it needs replacement [...] the new NASA Docking System (NDS) that will be used to dock with the ISS...
  116. ^ Speed, Richard (4 March 2019). "SpaceX Crew Dragon: Launched and docked. Now, about that splashdown..." The Register. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. Another very important difference is the nose cone, which hinges to reveal the NASA Docking System (NDS). The cargo-only Dragon uses the larger Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) for docking...
  117. ^ Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is a modified version of its cargo counterpart, and will also launch atop the Falcon 9."
  118. ^ Gray, Tyler (9 March 2020). "CRS-20 – Final Dragon 1 arrives at the ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The first iteration of SpaceX's Dragon has successfully flown twenty missions to the ISS to date [...] CRS-20 is the last flight of the first-generation Dragon spacecraft, with the cargo version of the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft expected to take over services next year as part of Phase 2 of the CRS program, also known as CRS2.
  119. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Diameter: 12.1 ft. Height: 23.6 ft. Dimensions include Dragon's cargo "trunk.""
  120. ^ a b Wall 2018, "Reusable?: Yes, Dragons are reusable, although test flights will fly new vehicles. Cargo trunk is discarded after each flight."
  121. ^ Sheetz, Michael (10 March 2020). "SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Shotwell also noted that SpaceX is planning to reuse its Crew Dragon capsules. That was in doubt previously, as the leader of NASA's Commercial Crew program said in 2018 that SpaceX would use a new capsule each time the company flew the agency's astronauts. "We can fly crew more than once on a Crew Dragon," Shotwell said. "I'm pretty sure NASA is going to be okay with reuse."
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  125. ^ Foust, Jeff (19 November 2022). "SpaceX to launch last new cargo Dragon spacecraft". SpaceNews. Retrieved 18 February 2023. Walker revealed at the briefing SpaceX plans to build a fifth and likely final Crew Dragon.
  126. ^ Ralph, Eric (6 March 2019). "DeepSpace: SpaceX takes huge step towards Mars with flawless Crew Dragon performance". Teslarati. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020. ...Crew Dragon does not need a significant number of systems critical for longer stays in space, as it is only designed to support humans for approximately one week in free-flight.
  127. ^ Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is also outfitted with an emergency escape system, which consists of eight SuperDraco engines built into the capsule's walls. If something goes wrong at any point during a Crew Dragon flight, these engines can fire up and carry the spacecraft and its passengers to safety."
  128. ^ Seedhouse, Erik (2015). Cressy, Christine (ed.). SpaceX's Dragon: America's Next Generation Spacecraft. Daytona Beach, Florida: Springer. p. 132. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21515-0. ISBN 978-3-319-21515-0. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The first test of the SuperDraco [...] was an impressive demonstration of what the engine could do, not only sustaining its 71,000 newtons (16,000 pounds) of thrust...
  129. ^ a b Weitering, Hanneke (24 April 2019). "The Emergency Launch Abort Systems of SpaceX and Boeing Explained". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX has built the thrusters into the capsule's outer walls. Eight SuperDraco engines are embedded in the hull and will "push" the capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. [...] Boeing's CST-100 Starliner uses a similar launch escape system as the one on the Crew Dragon, but instead of eight SuperDraco engines, it uses four RS-88 engines, which are built by Aerojet Rocketdyne.
  130. ^ Leone, Dan (29 May 2014). "SpaceX's SuperDraco Thruster for Manned Dragon Spacecraft Passes Big Test (Video)". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Besides launch abort, SuperDraco thrusters will allow SpaceX's spacecraft to land propulsively on the ground, the company says. Propulsive Dragon landing tests are slated to begin at McGregor under the DragonFly program
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  132. ^ Wall 2018, "It makes parachute-aided splashdowns in the ocean when its work on orbit is done. [...] SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk had previously stated that Crew Dragon would eventually be capable of touchdowns on terra firma, using parachutes and retrorocket firings [...] But that option is apparently no longer in the works."
  133. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Landing Site: Atlantic Ocean"
  134. ^ a b Dreier, Casey (19 May 2020). "NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a Fantastic Deal". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. Crew Dragon $60 - $67 million; Starliner $91 - $99 million [...] Starliner and Crew Dragon per-seat costs use the total contract value for operations divided by the maximum 24 seats available. The upper range reflects the inclusion of NASA's program overhead.
  135. ^ a b McCarthy, Niall (4 June 2020). "Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA [Infographic]". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. According to the NASA audit, the SpaceX Crew Dragon's per-seat cost works out at an estimated $55 million while a seat on Boeing's Starliner is approximately $90 million...
  136. ^ a b McFall-Johnsen, Morgan; Mosher, Dave; Secon, Holly (26 January 2020). "SpaceX is set to launch astronauts on Wednesday. Here's how Elon Musk's company became NASA's best shot at resurrecting American spaceflight". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. Eventually, a round-trip seat on the Crew Dragon is expected to cost about $US55 million. A seat on Starliner will cost about $US90 million. That's according to a November 2019 report from the NASA Office of Inspector General.
  137. ^ a b Wall, Mike (16 November 2019). "Here's How Much NASA Is Paying Per Seat on SpaceX's Crew Dragon & Boeing's Starliner". Space.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. NASA will likely pay about $90 million for each astronaut who flies aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule on International Space Station (ISS) missions, the report estimated. The per-seat cost for SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule, meanwhile, will be around $55 million, according to the OIG's calculations.
  138. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Head / Leg Room: Diameter: 15 ft. Height: 16.6 ft. Dimensions include service (propulsion) module."
  139. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Reusable?: Yes Crew capsule can be reflown up to 10 times. Service module will be discarded after each flight."
  140. ^ a b c Clark, Stephen (27 November 2015). "Aerojet Rocketdyne wins propulsion contracts worth nearly $1.4 billion". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Aerojet Rocketdyne, an aerospace propulsion contractor based in Sacramento, California, also announced this week it secured an expected contract from Boeing to provide thrusters, fuel tanks and abort engines for the CST-100 Starliner commercial crew capsule. [...] Each shipset includes four 40,000-pound thrust launch abort engines for the CST-100's pusher escape system and 24 orbital maneuvering and attitude control thrusters, each generating 1,500 pounds of thrust for low-altitude abort attitude control and in-space orbit adjustments.
  141. ^ a b c Gebhardt, Chris (19 December 2019). "Boeing, ULA launches Starliner, suffers orbital insertion issue – will return home Sunday". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The Crew Module is equipped with 12 Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that can produce 100 lbf of thrust each. [...] The Service Module contains 28 RCS thrusters that produce 85 lbf thrust each and 20 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines. The OMACs produce 1,500 lbf thrust each. [...] This suborbital trajectory was requested by Boeing so that under normal conditions, Starliner can then burn most of its unused launch abort fuel (via the Orbit Insertion Burn) to lighten its mass before it boosts its orbit to phase up to the Station.
  142. ^ a b Rhian, Jason (2 November 2016). "Launch Abort Engines for Boeing's CST-100 Starliner undergo testing". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The OMAC thrusters are 1,500-pound (6,672-newton) thrust class and are used for low-altitude launch abort attitude control, maneuvering, and stage-separation functions [...] The spacecraft's RCS engines are 100-pound (445-newton) thrust class and provide high-altitude abort attitude control and on-orbit maneuvering.
  143. ^ The Boeing Company (December 2019). "Reporter's Starliner Notebook" (PDF). The Boeing Company. p. 5. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Service Module: [...] 4 Launch Abort Engines, 40,000 lbf each
  144. ^ Wall 2018, "But Starliner touches down on land, not in the ocean, and therefore also sports impact-cushioning airbags at its rounded base."
  145. ^ a b Reichhardt 2018, "Landing Site: Western U.S. Starliner will parachute to dry land, like Soyuz, and use airbags to cushion the impact. Landing sites at White Sands, NM; Dugway Proving Ground, UT; Edwards AFB, CA; Willcox Playa, AZ."
  146. ^ Howell 2018, "If an emergency takes place, though, the spacecraft can splash down in the ocean, just like Apollo and Dragon."
  147. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "Each company has contracted for up to six additional taxi flights, during which the Starliner or Crew Dragon will dock with the station, remain attached for six months as a lifeboat for the crew, then return the astronauts to Earth."
  148. ^ a b Harding, Pete (26 February 2017). "Commercial rotation plans firming up as US Segment crew to increase early". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. But with the new generation of US commercial crew vehicles, which can accommodate four astronauts, it will finally become possible to increase the station's crew size to its originally conceived number of seven, including four USOS crewmembers. [...] establishing the norm for all subsequent commercial crew vehicles, which will then continue to launch at a cadence of once every six months.
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Notes

  1. ^ "High-visibility mishap" and "high-visibility close call" are designations which describe incidents that impact the mission's spacecraft and/or crew with a high degree of public, media, and/or political attention.[88][89] "High-visibility close call" had previously been used to describe an aborted EVA during Expedition 36.[90][91]
  2. ^ NASA extended this to 240 days for Crew-8 to allow it to support the CFT
[edit]
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