Jump to content

Buddhism and Hinduism: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m Disambiguated: Gaya → Gaya district
Gordomono (talk | contribs)
176 edits
←Replaced content with 'The horse is occasionally grey in winter.'
Line 1: Line 1:
The horse is occasionally grey in winter.
{{Essay-like|article|date=January 2013}}
The practices and goals of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]] have similarities and differences. The [[Theravada]] Buddhism is relatively conservative, and generally closest to the early form of Buddhism. However, the more historical or beginning forms of Hinduism and the teachings of Buddha have pronounced differences, as evident in the recorded materials of the [[Pali Canon]] of the Theravada school of Buddhism. The [[historical Vedic religion]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and the [[Brihadaranyaka]] Upanishad, which is considered among the very earliest [[Upanishad]]s<ref name="accesstoinsight.org">Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur." Accessed at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/vonglasenapp/wheel002.html</ref> (the Upanishad text was compiled under King [[Janaka]] of [[History of Mithila|Mithila]]), all share a common cultural theme influenced by the north eastern areas of the [[Indian subcontinent]], modern-day eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], and [[Nepal]].

Hinduism and Buddhism have shared parallel beliefs that have existed side by side.<ref>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."</ref> The influence of Upanishads, the earliest philosophical texts of Hindus, on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While [[Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan|Radhakrishnan]], [[Hermann Oldenberg|Oldenberg]] and [[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]] were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, [[Charles Eliot (diplomat)|Eliot]] and [[Edward J. Thomas|Thomas]] highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.<ref>{{citation|last=Pratt|first=James Bissett|title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90|year=1996|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1196-2|page=90}}</ref> Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.<ref>{{citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath|title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA103|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5|pages=103–104}}</ref> In Buddhist texts he is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.</ref> Later Indian religious thoughts were influenced by this interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs.<ref>[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27039.htm The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought (with Special Reference to the Bhagavadgiitaa)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

The period between 5th and 9th century CE was the most brilliant epoch in the development of Indian philosophy as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.<ref>Sharma, Peri Sarveswara (1980). Anthology of Kumārilabhaṭṭa's Works. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. p. 5.</ref> Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent, but was ultimately [[Decline of Buddhism in India|eclipsed]] in the 11th century CE at its point of origin by Hinduism and [[Islam]]. While Buddhism declined in India, Buddhism continued outside of India. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is the predominant religion in the [[Himalaya]]n region while [[Theravada]] Buddhism continues in [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and [[Mahayana]] Buddhism continues in [[India]], [[East Asia]] and among the [[Chinese diaspora]].

==Early history==
The land lying on the southern side of the [[Hindu-Kush]] Mountains was considered the land of the Hindus or Hindustan and the religion followed by the people there was known as Hinduism. In Hinduism, Buddha is an [[avatar]] of Lord [[Vishnu]]. Consequently the word [[Buddha]] is mentioned in several of the [[Purana]]s that are believed to have been composed after his birth.<ref>Vinay Lal (2007), http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/texts/Puranas.html</ref><ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/24/en1 Bhag-P 1.3.24] "Then, in the beginning of Kali-yuga, the Lord will appear as Lord Buddha, the son of [[Anjana]], in the province of [[Gaya district|Gaya]], just for the purpose of deluding those who are envious of the faithful theist."</ref> Certain Buddhist teachings appear to have been formulated in response to ideas presented in the early Upanishads – in some cases concurring with them, and in other cases criticizing or re-interpreting them.<ref name="accesstoinsight.org"/><ref>{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|p=31}}</ref><ref>''"We may distinguish among Upanishads in terms of relative age. First are early, pre-Buddhist Upanishads (Chandogya, Brahadanyaka, Aitreya, Taittiriya, Kauitaki, and somewhat later Kena and Isa)."'' The Encyclopedia of Christianity: Volume 5: Si-Z, By FAHLBUSCH, Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley, Translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley, Contributor Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley, David B. Barrett , pp 645, Published by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008, ISBN 0-8028-2417-X, 9780802824172</ref>

In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers, regardless of the rulers' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers, and many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers.<ref>January 2008, VOL. 213, #1</ref> This was because never has Buddhism been considered an alien religion to that of Hinduism in India, but as only one of the many strains of Hinduism. [[Kalidas|Kalidas']] work shows the ascension of Hinduism at the expense of [[Buddhism]].<ref>Hill, Christopher. ''South Asia: An Environmental History''. ABC-CLIO 2008, page 35. "Through Kalidas' work we begin to see the ascension of Hinduism, taking the place of Buddhism as the dominant religion."</ref> By the eighth century, Shiva and Vishnu had replaced Buddha in [[pujas]] of royalty.<ref>Morley, Grace. 2005. ''Indian Sculpture.'' Roli Books. pg. 28. "By the end of the Gupta period Buddhism was no longer dominant, even in the north, where it had prevailed for so long."</ref><ref>Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., ''Kingship and Authority in South Asia''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55"before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa....This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland)...Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."</ref><ref>Holt, John. ''The Buddhist Visnu''. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."</ref>

==Similarities==

=== Basic Vocabulary ===
The Buddha adopted many of the terms already used in philosophical discussions of his era; however, many of these terms carry a different meaning in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the [[Samanna-phala Sutta]], the Buddha is depicted presenting a notion of the 'three knowledges' (''tevijja'') – a term also used in the Vedic tradition to describe knowledge of the [[Veda]]s – as being not texts, but things that he had experienced (these are not noble truths).<ref>{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|pp=29–30}}</ref> The true 'three knowledges' are said to be constituted by the process of achieving enlightenment, which is what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of the night of his enlightenment.<ref>"The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the ''Veda'', is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (''ajhāyaka''). Brahmins who memorize the three ''Vedas'' (''tevijja'') really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment—what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night—that constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.</ref>

'''[[Karma]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{unicode|कर्म}} from the root {{unicode|kṛ}}, "to do") is a word meaning ''action'' or ''activity'' and, often implies its subsequent '''results''' (also called karma-phala, "the fruits of action"). It is commonly understood as a term to denote the entire cycle of [[Causality|cause and effect]] as described in the philosophies of a number of cosmologies, including those of Buddhism and Hinduism.

Karma is a central part of Buddhist teachings. In Buddha's teaching, karma is a direct result of a person's word, thought, and action in life. In pre-Buddhist Hinduism, karma has to do with whether the actions performed in rituals are done correctly or not. Therefore, there is little emphasis on moral conduct in its conception. In Buddhism, since a person's word, thought, and action form the basis for good and bad karma, [[Śīla|sila]] (moral conduct) goes hand in hand with the development of meditation and wisdom. Buddhist teachings carry a different meaning from pre-Buddhist conception of karma.<ref>{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|p=37}}</ref>

'''[[Dharma]]''' ([[Sanskrit]], [[Devanagari]]: धर्म or [[Pāli]] '''Dhamma''', Devanagari: धम्म) means '''Natural Law''','''Reality''' or '''Duty''', and with respect to its significance for [[spirituality]] and [[religion]] might be considered '''the Way of the Higher Truths'''. A Hindu appellation for Hinduism itself is ''[[Sanātana Dharma]]'', which translates as "the eternal dharma." Similarly, [[Buddhadharma]] in an appellation for Buddhism. The general concept of dharma forms a basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in [[India]]. The four main ones are Hinduism, [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] (Jaina Dharma), and [[Sikhism]] (Sikha Dharma), all of whom retain the centrality of dharma in their teachings. In these traditions, beings that live in harmony with dharma proceed more quickly toward, according to the tradition, [[Dharma Yukam]], [[Moksha]], or [[Nirvana]] (personal liberation). Dharma can refer generally to religious [[duty]], and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.

The [[Rig Veda]] says man is born and dies only once.<ref>[[Richard Gombrich]], ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo.'' Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 41. "In the Rig Veda, man is thought to be born and die only once."</ref> The Rig Veda mentions life after death in heaven in the company of ancestors. The ritual system of the Vedas was central to Vedic life and thought and depended 'on the notion of constant sacrifice, the reintegration of multiple elements into a moment of unity before a new dispersal into being'.<ref>''"At the same time , it is apparent in the early Samhitas that a personal replacement body is not without meaning. Whether asu, manas, prana, jiva or atman survives the body that is buried, cremated, exposed on a height, or "scattered" (in case of someone lost and never found), there is expectation of finding in heaven a new body (tanu), variously described as radiant, splendid , perfect. Rig Vedic funeral hymns 10.14.8 and 10.16.5 mention unison of the deceased body with new body...'''Indeed ritual system central to Vedic life and thought depends on the notion of constant sacrifice, the reintegration of multiple elements into a moment of unity before a new dispersal into being ... ''' This enduring spirit, newly embodied, is not alone. The new locus is heaven (svarga), home of the ancestors, literally, "fathers", including recent forebears and progenitors of the human species as well.'' The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, Jerry L. Walls, Chapter 9 – Hindu Eschatology, The Early Vedas – Surviving the Death of the Body, David M. Knipe, pp 173–175, Oxford University Press US, 2007</ref>

The term "Buddha" too has appeared in Hindu scriptures before the birth of [[Gautama Buddha]]. In the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'', [[Daksha|sage Daksha]] calls [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]] as Buddha.<ref> "''namah suddhaya buddhaya''"; P. 67 ''Cultural History From The Vayu Purana'' By Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil, Rajaram D. K. Patil </ref>

====Tibetan Buddhism====
Buddhism from other areas such as China, Kashmir, Japan entered the Himalaya and became the practice lineages of the [[Nyingma]], [[Kagyu]], [[Sakya]] and [[Geluk]] schools of Tibetan Buddhism, which in turn dialogued with the indigenous [[Bön]] traditions.

Yoga is central to [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. In the Nyingma tradition, certain practitioners progress to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with [[Mahayoga|Mahā yoga]], continuing to [[Anuyoga]] and ultimately undertaking the most subtle, [[Atiyoga]]. In qualification, the Nyingmapa do not equate a value judgment with the [[Yana (Buddhism)|yana]], one is not better than another, the yana most appropriate for a practitioner is determined by their karma, propensity and proclivity. The majority of practitioners stay within one yana for the duration of their lifetime. The Nyingmapa view all traditions, not just their own through the modal of the nine yana. The Bonpo have a comparable modal of nine. Elements of [[Adi Yoga]] for both the Bonpo and Nyingmapa are perceived in other traditions. Indeed, Nyingmapa and Bonpo are not the only source of Ati Yoga teachings as both traditions testify, as Adi Yoga is propagated in other worlds and dimensions. In the [[Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)|Sarma]] traditions, the [[Anuttara yoga]] class is equivalent to the three most subtle yana of the Nyingmapa. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm timing in movement exercises is known as [[Trul khor]] or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies, and the body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of [[Lukhang]].

Tibetan Buddhist doctrines unite a seemingly diverse group of practices to offer a variety of ways to truth (Sanskrit: [[satya]]; refer [[Two Truths]]) and enlightenment (Sanskrit: [[bodhi]]) in accordance with the different qualities and capacities of [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]]. These practices involve the use of [[tantra]] and yoga. Yoga used as a way to enhance concentration.<ref name=Simpkins>Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3199-8</ref>

[[Nagarjuna]]'s [[Madhyamika]] view and [[Yogacara]]'s [[Mind-only]] view are used in Tibetan Buddhism as bases for Yoga practices. Focused meditation clears the mind of unenlightened concepts.<ref name=Simpkins/>

In the 13th and the 14th centuries, the [[Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)|Sarma]] traditions developed a fourfold classification system for [[vajrayana|Tantric]] texts based on the types of practices each contained, especially their relative emphasis on external ritual or internal yoga. The first two classes, the so-called lower tantras, are called the [[Kriya]] and the Chatya tantras; the two classes of higher tantras are the Yoga and the Anuttara Yoga (Highest Yoga).<ref>The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art By John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel. Published 2003. Serindia Publications, Inc.ISBN 1932476016. p. 25</ref>

Similar Symbolism
* '''[[Mudra]]''': This is a symbolic hand-gesture expressing an emotion. Depictions of the Buddha are almost always depicted performing a [[mudra]].
* '''[[Dharma Chakra]]''': The [[Dharmacakra|Dharma Chakra]], which appears on the national flag of India and the flag of the Thai royal family, is a Buddhist symbol that is used by members of both religions.
* '''[[Rudraksha]]''': These are [[prayer beads|beads]] that devotees, usually monks, use for praying.
* '''[[Tilak]]''': Many Hindu devotees mark their heads with a [[tilak]], which is interpreted as a [[third eye]]. A similar mark is one of the characteristic [[physical characteristics of the Buddha]].
* '''[[Swastika]]''' and '''[[Sauwastika]]''': both are sacred symbols. It can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise and both are seen in Hinduism and Buddhism. The Buddha is sometimes depicted with a sauwastika on his chest or the palms of his hands.<ref>[http://img.search.com/0/0f/300px-Buddha_image_-_stone_-_with_disciple.jpg Buddha image]</ref>

===Mantra and Tibetan Buddhism===
[[File:Mantras caved into rock in Tibet.jpg|thumb|250px|In [[Tibet]], many [[Buddhist]]s carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion.]]
A '''[[mantra]]''' (मन्त्र) is a [[religion|religious]] [[syllable]] or [[poem]], typically from the [[Sanskrit]] language. Their use varies according to the school and philosophy associated with the mantra. They are primarily used as [[spiritual conduit]]s, words or vibrations that instill one-pointed [[Attention|concentration]] in the devotee. Other purposes have included religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or eliminate enemies. Mantras existed in the [[historical Vedic religion]], [[Zoroastrianism]]<ref>http://tenets.parsizoroastrianism.com/IsthereanysenseinchantingAvestaprayers.pdf</ref>) and the Shramanic traditions, and thus they remain important in Buddhism and [[Jainism]] as well as other faiths of Indian origin such as [[Sikhism]].

===Yoga===
The practice of [[Yoga]] is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of both Hinduism and Buddhism.<ref>The Yoga Tradition: its literature, philosophy and practice By Georg Feuerstein. ISBN 81-208-1923-3. p. 111</ref> However there are distinct variations in the usage of yoga terminology in the two religions. In Hinduism, the term "Yoga" commonly refers to the eight limbs of yoga as defined in the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]], written some time after 100 BCE, and means "yoke", with the idea that one's individual [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]], or soul, would yoke or bind with the monistic entity that underlies everything ([[brahman]]). Yoga in Hinduism also known as being 'complex', based on yoking (integrating). Yoga defines a specific process, it has an emphasis on knowledge and practice, as well as being known to be 'mature' and difficult.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stratton Hawley|first=John|title=Yoga and Viyoga: Simple Religion in Hinduism|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|year=1981|month=January|volume=74|pages=1–20|accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The most basic meaning of this Sanskrit term is with technique. The technique of the different forms of yoga is what makes the practice meaningful. Yoga is not an easy or simple practice, viyoga is what is described as simple. Yoga is difficult in the fact of displaying the faith and meaning of Hinduism. Many Hindus tend to pick and choose between the five forms of yoga because of the way they live their life and how they want to practice it in the form they are most connected to.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stratton Hawley|first=John|title=Yoga and Viyoga: Simple Religion in Hinduism|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|year=January|month=1981|volume=74|series=no. 1|pages=1–20|accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> In the [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism of Tibet, however, the term "Yoga" is simply used to refer to any type of spiritual practice; from the various types of tantra (like [[Kriyayoga]] or [[Charyayoga]]) to '[[Deity yoga]]' and '[[guru yoga]]'. In the early translation phase of the [[Sutrayana]] and [[Tantrayana]] from India, China and other regions to Tibet, along with the practice lineages of [[sadhana]], codified in the [[Nyingmapa]] canon, the most subtle 'conveyance' (Sanskrit: [[Yana (Buddhism)|yana]]) is [[Dzogchen|Adi Yoga]] (Sanskrit). A contemporary scholar with a focus on [[Tibetan Buddhism]], [[Robert Thurman]] writes that Patanjali was influenced by the success of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.<ref>Robert Thurman, "The Central Philosophy of Tibet.'' Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 34.</ref>

In the 1900 there was a man by the name of Swami Kŗpalvānanda who was considered "The Man behind Yoga". In 1977 Swami left his home in West India and traveled to Sumneytown, Pennsylvania where he could live in silence and continue his peaceful life practicing his particular style of yoga called [[präna-yoga]]. The [[Kripalu Yoga Centre]] founded by Swami Kŗpalvānanda is one of the largest and most successful spiritual centres in North America.<ref name="Goldberg, Ellen 2010">Goldberg, Ellen (2010). Swami Krpalvänanda: The Man behind Kripalu Yoga. Buddhism and Hinduism, 1-23.</ref>

There is a range of common terminology and common descriptions of the meditative states that are seen as the foundation of meditation practice in both Hindu Yoga and Buddhism. Many scholars have noted that the concepts of [[wikt:dhyana|dhyana]] and [[samādhi]] - technical terms describing stages of meditative absorption - are common to meditative practices in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Most notable in this context is the relationship between the system of four Buddhist ''dhyana'' states ([[Pali]]: [[Jhana in Theravada|''jhana'']]) and the ''samprajnata samadhi'' states of Classical Yoga.<ref>Samadhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga By Stuart Ray Sarbacker. ISBN 0-7914-6553-5. p. 77</ref> Also, many (Tibetan) Vajrayana practices of the [[generation stage]] and [[completion stage]] work with the [[chakras]], inner energy channels ([[nadi (yoga)|nadis]]) and [[kundalini]], called [[tummo]] in Tibetan.

====Zen Buddhism====
[[Zen]] is a form of [[Mahayana Buddhism]]. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.<ref name=Heisig>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By [[Heinrich Dumoulin]], James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)</ref> In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.<ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By [[Heinrich Dumoulin]], James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)</ref> Zen Buddhism traces some of its roots to yogic practices.<ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By [[Heinrich Dumoulin]], James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13).
Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 [[World Wisdom]]. 387 pages. ISBN 0-941532-89-5 [Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation."]</ref> Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.<ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By [[Heinrich Dumoulin]], James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (p. 13).
Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 [[World Wisdom]]. 387 pages. ISBN 0-941532-89-5</ref>

==Differences==
Despite the similarities in terminology there exist differences between the two religions. The major differences are mentioned below.
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2012}}
===God===
[[Gautama Buddha]] did not deny the existence nor forbid the worship of the popular gods, but such worship is not [[Buddhist]] and the gods are trapped in the same samsaric cycle as other beings but are in no way guides to religion, since they need instruction themselves. The focus of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] is not about worshipping god, achieving heaven in the next life (perhaps for a number of lay devotees but not for [[bhikkhu]] / [[bhikkhuni]]), nor is it about experiencing Brahma consciousness in this life or the next. The reason is that in all these realms and beings are subject to rebirth after some period of time. It is like going around in circles in the round of rebirth despite all the effort and striving. Therefore, the purpose of the holy life in the Buddha’s path is about liberation from the cycle of rebirth and experience awakening in this very life (some might take longer, depending on the person). The Buddha himself realized awakening after about six years of practice. He entered into [[Sunyata]], dwells in [[rapture]], [[sukkha]] (happiness), tranquility, [[equanimity]], and the like. Also according to the Pali Canon, he visits any realms he feels like in that lifetime after awakening. The Buddha was liberated from all rebirth in [[samsara]] after [[parinirvana]].

The Buddha (as portrayed in the Pali scriptures, the [[Āgama (Buddhism)|agamas]]) set an important trend in [[Nontheistic#Nontheism in Buddhism|nontheism in Buddhism]] in the sense of dismissing the notion of an omnipotent god.<ref name="gunasekara">{{cite web | title=The Buddhist Attitude to God| work=Statement made to a Multi-religious Seminar|author=Dr V. A. Gunasekara| url=http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm | accessdate=2007-04-27 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070408180218/http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-04-08}}</ref> Nevertheless, in many passages in the [[Tripitaka]] gods ([[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] in Sanskrit) are mentioned and specific examples are given of individuals who were reborn as a god, or gods who were reborn as humans. [[Buddhist cosmology]] recognizes various levels and types of gods, but none of these gods is considered the creator of the world or of the human race.<ref name="gunasekara"/>

# Buddha preaches that attachment with people was the cause of sorrow when 'death' happens and therefore propagates detachment with people. Hinduism on the other hand does not propagate detachment but stresses upon duty or ''dharma'' and how interactions with people has to take place based on ''dharma'' or duty. In Hinduism, Lord Shiva explains 'death' to be journey of the immortal soul in pursuit of 'Moksha' and therefore a fact of life.
# While Buddhism says retirement into forest for meditation is to take place starting from childhood, this is viewed as escapism by Hinduism, Hinduism allows for this to happen only after performing all ''dharmas'' or duties of ones life, starting from studying scriptures, working to support children and family and taking care of aged parents and lastly after all the dharma done retire to the forest and slowly meditate and fast until physical disintegration & to reach the ultimate truth or ''Brahman''.
# Buddhism explained that attachment is the cause of sorrow in society but could not explain the reason for differences in wealth, class etc. in society. Therefore Buddhism's cure for sorrow was detachment and non-involvement (non-action or negative action). Hinduism on the other hand explained that both sorrow or happiness is due to 'Karma' or past actions and bad karma can be overcome and good karma can be obtained by following dharma or righteous duty (pro-action or positive action) which will ultimately provide 'Moksha' i.e. overcoming the cycle of life and joining ''Brahman''.

Buddhist canonical views about God and the priests are:

{{quote|13. 'Well then, Vasettha, those ancient sages versed in ancient scriptures, the authors of the verses, the utterers of the verses, whose, ancient form of words so chanted, uttered, or composed, the priests of today chant over again or repeat; intoning or reciting exactly as has been intoned or recited-to wit, Atthaka, Vamaka, Vamadeva, Vessamitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettha, Kassapa, and Bhagu [11] – did even they speak thus, saying: " We know it, we have seen it", where the creator is whence the creator is?}}

Scholar-monk [[Walpola Rahula]] writes that man depends on this creation "for his own protection, safety, and security, just as a child depends on his parent." He describes this as a product of "ignorance, weakness, fear, and desire," and writes that this "deeply and fanatically held belief" for man's consolation is "false and empty" from the perspective of Buddhism. He writes that man does not wish to hear or understand teachings against this belief, and that the Buddha described his teachings as "against the current" for this reason.<ref>Walpola Rahula, ''What the Buddha Taught,'' pp. 51–52.</ref>

In later Mahayana literature, however, the idea of an eternal, all-pervading, all-knowing, immaculate, uncreated and deathless Ground of Being (the dharmadhatu, inherently linked to the sattvadhatu, the realm of beings), which is the Awakened Mind (bodhicitta) or Dharmakaya ("body of Truth") of the Buddha himself, is attributed to the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras, and is found in various tantras as well. In some Mahayana texts, such a principle is occasionally presented as manifesting in a more personalised form as a primordial buddha, such as Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, Vairochana, Amitabha and Adi-Buddha, among others.

===Rites and rituals===
In later tradition such as Mahayana Buddhism in Japan, the [[Shingon]] Fire Ritual (Homa /Yagna) and Urabon (Sanskrit: Ullambana) derives from Hindu traditions.<ref>R.K. Payne: The Tantric Ritual of Japan. Feeding the Gods: the Shingon Fire Ritual., and Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu? 2001</ref> Similar rituals are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Also see [[Shinnyo-en]].Both Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism share common rites, such as the purification rite of Homa (Havan, Yagna in Sanskrit), prayers for the ancestors and deceased (Ullambana in Sanskrit, Urabon in Japanese).

===Caste===
The Buddha repudiated the caste distinctions of the Brahmanical religion,<ref name="ccbs.ntu.edu.tw">K.N. Upadhaya, ''The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought.'' Philosophy East and West Vol.18(1968) pp.163-173, accessed at http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27039.htm.</ref> and was as a result described as a corrupter and opposed to true dharma in some of the Puranas.<ref>cf. Shiva Purana 2.5.1-6, Skanda Purana 4.1.39.26-70. Discussed in Wendy O'Flaherty, ''Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology.'' University of California Press, 1976, pages 186 and 193.</ref> In one sutta, the Buddha satirizes and debunks the [[Historical Vedic religion|brahminical]] claims regarding the divine nature of the caste system, and shows that it is nothing but a human [[convention (norm)|convention]].<ref>[[Richard Gombrich]], ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo.'' Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, p. 85: [http://books.google.com/books?id=-MoOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA85&dq=inauthor:Gombrich+Agga%C3%B1%C3%B1a#PPA85,M1].</ref><ref>David J. Kalupahana, ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1991, p. 61: [http://books.google.com/books?id=38WJRwP3nLgC&pg=PA61&dq=inauthor:kalupahana+Agga%C3%B1%C3%B1a#PPA61,M1]</ref>

Buddhism implicitly denied the validity of caste distinctions by offering ordination to all regardless of caste.<ref>Mrozik, Susanne. "Upali" in McMillian Encyclopedia of Buddhism, pg. 870. "All account emphasize that caste has no bearing on a person's status in the monastic community."</ref><ref name="Andrew Skilton 1997, page 144">Andrew Skilton, ''A Concise History of Buddhism.'' Windhorse Publications, 1997, p. 144.</ref> The Buddhist writer [[Ashvaghosa]] directly opposed the caste system of Hinduism by drawing upon anomalous episodes in Hindu scriptures.<ref name="Andrew Skilton 1997, page 144"/> While the caste system constitutes an assumed background to the stories told in Buddhist scriptures, the sutras do not attempt to justify or explain the system, and the caste system was not generally propagated along with the Buddhist teachings.<ref>Cohen, Richard S. "India" in McMillian Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 358. "Though Buddhist texts take the existence of "caste" for granted, they attempt neither to justify the social system, nor to disseminate it."</ref> The early texts state that caste is not determined by karma.<ref>Bruce Matthews in Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, editor, ''Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments.'' SUNY Press, 1986, p. 126. [http://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC&pg=PA126&dq=Bija+Niyama&lr=#PPA125,M1].</ref>

The notion of ritual purity also provided a conceptual foundation for the caste system, by identifying occupations and duties associated with impure or taboo objects as being themselves impure. Regulations imposing such a system of ritual purity and taboos are absent from the Buddhist monastic code, and not generally regarded as being part of Buddhist teachings.<ref>{{Harv|Robinson|Johnson|Thanissaro|2005|p=51}}</ref></div>

===Cosmology and worldview===
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2012}}
{{Main|Buddhist Cosmology}}
In [[Buddhist cosmology]], there are 31 planes of existence within samsara.<ref name="books.google.co.in">Page 14, The Emergence of Buddhism: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective, By Jacob N. Kinnard, Published by Fortress [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=xIzyZ7Nvs7cC&pg=PA14&dq=buddhist+cosmology+31+realms&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gDMJUIvZCfGviQe84unrCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=buddhist%20cosmology%2031%20realms&f=false]</ref> Beings in these realms are subject to rebirth after some period of time, except for realms of the Non-Returners. Therefore, most of these places are not the goal of the holy life in the Buddha's dispensation. Buddhas are beyond all these 31 planes of existence after parinibbana. Hindu texts mostly mentions the devas in Kamma Loka. Only the Hindu god Brahma can be found in the Rupa loka. There are many realms above the brahma realm that are accessible through meditation. Those in Brahma realms are also subject to rebirth according to the Buddha.

In Mahayana Buddhism, several Hindu gods and divinities are venerated and hold an important place in the rites and rituals: Brahma, Indra, Saraswati, Surya, Vayu, Varuna, Prithvi, etc.

===Practices===

To have an idea of the differences between Buddhism and pre-existing beliefs and practices during this time, we can look into the [[Samaññaphala Sutta]] in the [[Digha Nikaya]] of the [[Pali Canon]]. In this sutra, a king of Magadha listed the teachings from many prominent and famous spiritual teachers around during that time. He also asked the [[Buddha]] about his teaching when visiting him. The Buddha told the king about the practices of his spiritual path. The list of various practices he taught disciples as well as practices he doesn't encourage are listed. The text, rather than stating what the new faith was, emphasized what the new faith was not. Contemporaneous religious traditions were caricatured and then negated. Though critical of prevailing religious practices and social institutions on philosophical grounds, early Buddhist texts exhibit a reactionary anxiety at having to compete in religiously plural societies. Below are a few examples found in the sutra:

{{quote|"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to high and luxurious furnishings such as these — over-sized couches, couches adorned with carved animals, long-haired coverlets, multi-colored patchwork coverlets, white woolen coverlets, woolen coverlets embroidered with flowers or animal figures, stuffed quilts, coverlets with fringe, silk coverlets embroidered with gems; large woolen carpets; elephant, horse, and chariot rugs, antelope-hide rugs, deer-hide rugs; couches with awnings, couches with red cushions for the head and feet — he (a bhikkhu disciple of the Buddha) abstains from using high and luxurious furnishings such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to scents, cosmetics, and means of beautification such as these — rubbing powders into the body, massaging with oils, bathing in perfumed water, kneading the limbs, using mirrors, ointments, garlands, scents, … bracelets, head-bands, decorated walking sticks…..fancy sunshades, decorated sandals, turbans, gems, yak-tail whisks, long-fringed white robes — he abstains from ….means of beautification such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to talking about lowly topics such as these — talking about kings, robbers, ministers of state; armies, alarms, and battles; food and drink; clothing, furniture, garlands, and scents; relatives; vehicles; villages, towns, cities, the countryside; women and heroes; the gossip of the street and the well; tales of the dead; tales of diversity [philosophical discussions of the past and future], the creation of the world and of the sea, and talk of whether things exist or not — he abstains from talking about lowly topics such as
these...

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...are addicted to running messages and errands for people such as these — kings, ministers of state, noble warriors, priests, householders, or youths [who say], 'Go here, go there, take this there, fetch that here' — he abstains from running messages and errands for people such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...engage in scheming, persuading, hinting, belittling, and pursuing gain with gain, he abstains from forms of scheming and persuading [improper ways of trying to gain material support from donors] such as these.
"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: reading marks on the limbs [e.g., palmistry]; reading omens and signs; interpreting celestial events [falling stars, comets]; interpreting dreams; reading marks on the body [e.g., phrenology]; reading marks on cloth gnawed by mice; offering fire oblations, oblations from a ladle, oblations of husks, rice powder, rice grains, ghee, and oil; offering oblations from the mouth; offering blood-sacrifices; making predictions based on the fingertips; geomancy; laying demons in a cemetery; placing spells on spirits; reciting house-protection charms; snake charming, poison-lore, scorpion-lore, rat-lore, bird-lore, crow-lore; fortune-telling based on visions; giving protective charms; interpreting the calls of birds and animals — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: determining lucky and unlucky gems, garments, staffs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, and other weapons; women, boys, girls, male slaves, female slaves; elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, fowl, quails, lizards, long-eared rodents, tortoises, and other animals — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: the rulers will march forth; the rulers will march forth and return; our rulers will attack, and their rulers will retreat; their rulers will attack, and our rulers will retreat; there will be triumph for our rulers and defeat for their rulers; there will be triumph for their rulers and defeat for our rulers; thus there will be triumph, thus there will be defeat — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.
"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be a lunar eclipse; there will be a solar eclipse; there will be an occultation of an asterism; the sun and moon will go their normal courses; the sun and moon will go astray; the asterisms will go their normal courses; the asterisms will go astray; there will be a meteor shower; there will be a darkening of the sky; there will be an earthquake; there will be thunder coming from a clear sky; there will be a rising, a setting, a darkening, a brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms; such will be the result of the lunar eclipse... the rising, setting, darkening, brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be abundant rain; there will be a drought; there will be plenty; there will be famine; there will be rest and security; there will be danger; there will be disease; there will be freedom from disease; or they earn their living by counting, accounting, calculation, composing poetry, or teaching hedonistic arts and doctrines — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: calculating auspicious dates for marriages, betrothals, divorces; for collecting debts or making investments and loans; for being attractive or unattractive; curing women who have undergone miscarriages or abortions; reciting spells to bind a man's tongue, to paralyze his jaws, to make him lose control over his hands, or to bring on deafness; getting oracular answers to questions addressed to a mirror, to a young girl, or to a spirit medium; worshipping the sun, worshipping the Great Brahma, bringing forth flames from the mouth, invoking the goddess of luck — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: promising gifts to devas in return for favors; fulfilling such promises; demonology; teaching house-protection spells; inducing virility and impotence; consecrating sites for construction; giving ceremonial mouthwashes and ceremonial bathing; offering sacrificial fires; administering emetics, purges, purges from above, purges from below, head-purges; administering ear-oil, eye-drops, treatments through the nose, ointments, and counter-ointments; practicing eye-surgery (or: extractive surgery), general surgery, pediatrics; administering root-medicines binding medicinal herbs — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.<ref name="Walshe, Maurice 1995">Walshe, Maurice (trans.) (1995). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-103-3.</ref>}}

===Meditation===
{{Main|Dhyana in Buddhism}}
{{See also|Jhāna#Historical development}}

According to the Maha-Saccaka Sutta, the Buddha recalled a meditative state he entered by chance as a child and abandoned the ascetic practices he has been doing:

{{quote|I thought: 'I recall once, when my father the Sakyan was working, and I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree, then — quite secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful mental qualities — I entered & remained in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from seclusion, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. Could that be the path to Awakening?' Then following on that memory came the realization: 'That is the path to Awakening.'|<ref name="Nanamoli, Bhikkhu 1995"/>}}

According to the Upakkilesa Sutta, after figuring out the cause of the various obstacles and overcoming them, the Buddha was able to penetrate the sign and enters 1st- 4th Jhana.
{{quote|“I also saw both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, ‘What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear?”

“Then consider the following: ‘The question arose in me and because of doubt my concentration fell, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I act so that the question does not arise in me again.”

”I remained diligent, ardent, perceived both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. ‘ I thought, ‘What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear?”

Then consider the following: “Inattention arose in me because of inattention and my concentration has decreased, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I must act in such a way that neither doubt nor disregard arise in me again.”}}

In the same way as above, the Buddha encountered many more obstacles that caused the light to disappear and found his way out of them. These includes, sloth and torpor, fear, elation, inertia, excessive energy, energy deficient, desire, perception of diversity, and excessive meditation on the ways. Finally, he was able to penetrate the light and entered jhana.

The following descriptions in the Upakkilesa Sutta further show how he find his way into the first four Jhanas, which he later considered ''samma samadhi.''

{{quote|“When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention … sloth and torpor … fear … elation … inertia … excessive energy … deficient energy … … desire … perception of diversity … excessive meditation on the ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind.”

When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention … sloth and torpor … fear … elation …. inertia … excessive energy … deficient energy… desire … perception of diversity … excessive meditation on the ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind, so I thought, ‘I abandoned these imperfections of the mind. ‘ Now the concentration will develop in three ways. ..And so, Anuruddha, develop concentration with directed thought and sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought, but only with the sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought and without thought sustained, developed with the concentration ecstasy; developed concentration without ecstasy; develop concentration accompanied by happiness, developing concentration accompanied by equanimity…When Anuruddha, I developed concentration with directed thought and sustained thought to the development … when the concentration accompanied by fairness, knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘My release is unshakable, this is my last birth, now there are no more likely to be any condition.|<ref name="Nanamoli, Bhikkhu 1995"/>}}

According to the early scriptures, the Buddha learned the two formless attainments from two teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta respectively, prior to his enlightenment.<ref name="Steven Sutcliffe 2004, page 135">Steven Sutcliffe, ''Religion: Empirical Studies.'' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 135.</ref> It is most likely that they belonged to the Brahmanical tradition.<ref>John J. Holder, ''Early Buddhist Discourses.'' Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, page xi.</ref> However, he realized that neither "Dimension of Nothingness" nor "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" lead to Nirvana and left. The Buddha said in the Ariyapariyesana Sutta:

{{quote|But the thought occurred to me, ‘This Dhamma leads not to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to stilling, to direct knowledge, to Awakening, nor to Unbinding, but only to reappearance in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.’ So, dissatisfied with that Dhamma, I left.|<ref name="Nanamoli, Bhikkhu 1995">Nanamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995, ed. Bhikkhu Bodhi). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-072-X.</ref>}}

Cessation of feelings and perceptions

The Buddha himself discovered an attainment beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the "cessation of feelings and perceptions". This is sometimes called the "ninth ''jhāna''" in commentarial and scholarly literature.<ref name="Steven Sutcliffe 2004, page 135"/><ref>Chandima Wijebandara, ''Early Buddhism, Its Religious and Intellectual Milieu.'' Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya, 1993, page 22.</ref>
Although the "Dimension of Nothingness" and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" are included in the list of nine Jhanas taught by the Buddha, they are not included in the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Noble Path number eight is "Samma Samadhi" (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas are considered "Right Concentration". If he takes a disciple through all the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the "Cessation of Feelings and Perceptions" rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception".

In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta, the Buddha defines Right Concentration that belongs to the concentration (samadhi) division of the path as the first four Jhanas:

{{quote|And what is right concentration? There is the case where a monk — quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful (mental) qualities — enters & remains in the first Jhana: rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. With the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, he enters & remains in the Second Jhana: rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance. With the fading of rapture, he remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with the body. He enters & remains in the Third Jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.' With the abandoning of pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — he enters & remains in the Fourth Jhana: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is called right concentration.|<ref name="Bodhi, Bhikkhu 2000">Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-331-1.</ref>}}

The Buddha did not reject the formless attainments in and of themselves, but instead the doctrines of his teachers as a whole, as they did not lead to ''[[nibbana]]''. He then underwent harsh ascetic practices that he eventually also became disillusioned with. He subsequently remembered entering ''jhāna'' as a child, and realized that, "That indeed is the path to enlightenment."

In the ''suttas'', the immaterial attainments are never referred to as ''jhānas''. The immaterial attainments have more to do with expanding, while the Jhanas (1-4) focus on concentration. A common translation for the term "samadhi" is concentration. Rhys Davids and Maurice Walshe agreed that the term ” samadhi” is not found in any pre-buddhist text. Hindu texts later used that term to indicate the state of enlightenment. This is not in conformity with Buddhist usage. In " The Long Discourse of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya" (pg. 1700) Maurice Walshe wrote that:

{{quote|Rhys Davids also states that the term samadhi is not found in any pre-Buddhist text. To his remarks on the subject should be added that its subsequent use in Hindu texts to denote the state of enlightenment is not in conformity with Buddhist usage, where the basic meaning of concentration is expanded to cover ‘meditation’ in general.|<ref name="Walshe, Maurice 1995"/>}}

[[Meditation]] was an aspect of the practice of the [[yogi]]s in the centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected their theories of liberation.<ref>Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha.'' Taken from ''Founders of Faith'', published by Oxford University Press, 1986, page 30.</ref> In Buddhism, [[mindfulness (Buddhism)|sati]] and [[sampajanna]] are to be developed at all times, in pre-Buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The origin of Buddhist meditation.'' Routledge, 2007, p. 72.</ref>

Another new teaching of the Buddha was that [[jhana|meditative absorption]] must be combined with a liberating cognition.<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The origin of Buddhist meditation.'' Routledge, 2007, p. 73.</ref>

Religious knowledge or 'vision' was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold. According to the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]'' this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of 'meditation' (Sanskrit: [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]) coupled with the perfection of 'ethics' (Sanskrit: [[śīla]]). Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of 'religious insight' (Sanskrit: [[prajñā]]) was original.<ref name="westernbuddhistreview.com">Dharmacarini Manishini, ''Western Buddhist Review.'' Accessed at http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html</ref>

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques.<ref>[[Richard Gombrich]], ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo.'' Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 44.</ref> They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha, as well as those first developed within Buddhism.<ref>Johannes Bronkhorst, ''The Two Traditions of Mediation in Ancient India.'' Franz Steiner Verlag Weisbaden GmbH, pages 1-17.</ref> Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of [[yoga]] as a means to liberation.<ref>Randall Collins, ''The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change.'' Harvard University Press, 2000, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA177&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPA199,M1 page 199].</ref>

While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.<ref name="Alexander Wynne 2007, page 51">Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.</ref> He mentions less likely possibilities as well.<ref>Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 56.</ref> Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the [[Nasadiya Sukta]] contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.<ref name="Alexander Wynne 2007, page 51"/>

===Vedas===
Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred although have been amended repeatedly by certain Brahmins to secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes.<ref>P. 177 ''The sacred books of the Buddhists compared with history and modern science'' By Robert Spence Hardy</ref> In the Buddhist [[Vinaya Pitaka]] of the ''Mahavagga'' (I.245)<ref>P. 494 ''The Pali-English dictionary'' By Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede</ref> section the Buddha names these rishis, and declared that the original Veda the Vedic rishis "Atthako, Vâmako, Vâmadevo, [[Vishvamitra|Vessâmitto]], [[Jamadagni|Yamataggi]], [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]]o, [[Bharadvaja|Bhâradvâjo]], [[Vasistha|Vâsettho]], [[Kashyapa|Kassapo]], and [[Bhrigu|Bhagu]]"<ref>P. 245 ''The Vinaya piṭakaṃ: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures ..., Volume 1'' edited by Hermann Oldenberg</ref> but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The Vinaya Pitaka's section ''Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata'' says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.<ref>P. 44 ''The legends and theories of the Buddhists, compared with history and science'' By Robert Spence Hardy</ref>

The Buddha is recorded in the Canki Sutta ([[Majjhima Nikaya]] 95) as saying to a group of Brahmins:
{{quote|O Vasettha, those priests who know the scriptures are just like a line of blind men tied together where the first sees nothing, the middle man nothing, and the last sees nothing.}}
In the same discourse, he says:
{{quote|It is not proper for a wise man who maintains truth to come to the conclusion: This alone is Truth, and everything else is false.}}
He is also recorded as saying:
{{quote|To be attached to one thing (to a certain view) and to look down upon other things (views) as inferior - this the wise men call a fetter.}}

[[Walpola Rahula]] writes, "It is always a question of knowing and seeing, and not that of believing. The teaching of the Buddha is qualified as ''ehi-passika,'' inviting you to 'come and see,' but not to come and believe... It is always seeing through knowledge or wisdom, and not believing through faith."<ref>This whole section is largely verbatim quotes from Rahula's ''What the Buddha Taught,'' pp. 9–10.</ref>

In Hinduism, philosophies are classified either as [[Astika]] or [[Nastika]], that is, philosophies that either affirm or reject the authorities of the Vedas. According to this tradition, Buddhism is a [[Nastika]] school since it rejects the authority of the Vedas.<ref>{{cite book | author=Broughton, Jeffrey L. | title=The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | year=1999 | isbn=0-520-21972-4}} p. 2.</ref> Buddhists on the whole called those who did not believe in Buddhism the "outer path-farers" (''tiirthika'').<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 131.</ref>

===Conversion===
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of [[religious conversion]], the issue of whether Hindus [[evangelization|evangelize]] is open to interpretations.<ref name="conversion">[http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/hbh/hbh_ch-5.html "Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?"]</ref> Those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu.<ref name="conversion"/> The Supreme Court of India has taken the latter view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' [http://www.hinduismtoday.com/in-depth_issues/RKMission.html]</ref>

Buddhism spread throughout Asia via evangelism and conversion.<ref>Dutt, Nalinaksha. Early History Of The Spread Of Buddhism And The Buddhist Schools. Cosmo Publications, 2005. P. 72-78. ISBN 81-307-0092-1.</ref> Buddhist scriptures depict such conversions in the form of lay followers declaring their support for the Buddha and his teachings, or via ordination as a Buddhist monk. Buddhist identity has been broadly defined as one who "takes [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]]" in the Buddha, Dharma, and [[Sangha]], echoing a formula seen in Buddhist texts. In some communities, formal conversion rituals are observed. No specific ethnicity has typically been associated with Buddhism, and as it spread beyond its origin in India immigrant monastics were replaced with newly ordained members of the local ethnic or tribal group.<ref>Hunter, W. W. The Indian Empire: Its People, History, and Products. Routledge, 2000. P. 149. ISBN 0-415-24495-1.</ref>

===Early Buddhism and early Vedanta===
[[Pali Canon|Early Buddhist scriptures]] do not mention schools of learning directly connected with the Upanishads. Though the earliest Upanishads had been completed by the Buddha's time, they are not cited in the early Buddhist texts as Upanishads or Vedanta. For the early Buddhists they were likely not thought of as having any outstanding significance in and of themselves, and as simply one section of the Vedas.<ref>[[Hajime Nakamura]], ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 133–134.</ref>

The Buddhist texts do describe wandering, mendicant Brahmins who appear to have valued the early Upanishads' promotion of this lifestyle as opposed to living the life of the householder and accruing wealth from nobles in exchange for performing Vedic sacrifices.<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 134–135.</ref> Furthermore, the early Buddhist texts mention ideas similar to those expounded in the early Upanishads, before controverting them.<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 135.</ref>

====Brahman====
The old Upanishads largely consider Brahman (masculine gender, Brahmā in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahmā") to be a personal god, and [[Brahman]] (neuter gender, Brahma in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahman") to be the impersonal world principle.<ref name="Hajime Nakamura 1990, page 136">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 136.</ref> They do not strictly distinguish between the two, however.<ref>[[David Kalupahana]], ''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.'' The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, p. 19.</ref> The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahmā: first, he has light and luster as his marks; second, he is invisible; third, he is unknowable, and it is impossible to know his nature; fourth, he is omniscient. The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahman as well.<ref name="Hajime Nakamura 1990, page 136"/>

In the Buddhist texts, there are many [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmās]]. There they form a class of superhuman beings, and rebirth into the realm of Brahmās is possible by pursuing Buddhist practices.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.125.than.html]. See note 2.</ref> In the early texts, the Buddha gives arguments to refute the existence of a creator.<ref>[[David Kalupahana]], ''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.'' The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, pp. 20–22.</ref>

In the Pāli scriptures, the neuter Brahman does not appear (though the word ''brahma'' is standardly used in compound words to mean "best", or "supreme"<ref>Steven Collins, ''Aggañña sutta.'' Sahitya Akademi, 200, p. 58.</ref><ref>Peter Harvey, ''The Selfless Mind.'' Curzon Press, 1995, p. 234.</ref>), however ideas are mentioned as held by various Brahmins in connection with Brahmā that match exactly with the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads. Brahmins who appear in the Tevijja-suttanta of the Digha Nikaya regard "union with Brahmā" as liberation, and earnestly seek it. In that text, Brahmins of the time are reported to assert: "Truly every Brahmin versed in the three Vedas has said thus: 'We shall expound the path for the sake of union with that which we do not know and do not see. This is the correct path. This path is the truth, and leads to liberation. If one practices it, he shall be able to enter into association with Brahmā." The early Upanishads frequently expound "association with Brahmā", and "that which we do not know and do not see" matches exactly with the early Upanishadic Brahman.<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 137.</ref>

In the earliest Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Absolute]], which came to be referred to as Brahman, is referred to as "the imperishable".<ref>Karel Werner, ''The Yogi and the Mystic: Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism.'' Routledge, 1994, page 24.</ref> The Pāli scriptures present a "pernicious view" that is set up as an absolute principle corresponding to Brahman: "O Bhikkhus! At that time Baka, the Brahmā, produced the following pernicious view: 'It is permanent. It is eternal. It is always existent. It is independent existence. It has the dharma of non-perishing. Truly it is not born, does not become old, does not die, does not disappear, and is not born again. Furthermore, no liberation superior to it exists elsewhere." The principle expounded here corresponds to the concept of Brahman laid out in the Upanishads. According to this text the Buddha criticized this notion: "Truly the Baka Brahmā is covered with unwisdom."<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 137–138. "It has the dharma of non-perishing" is Nakamura's translation of "acavanadhammam".</ref>

[[The Buddha]] confined himself to what is empirically given.<ref>[[David Kalupahana]], ''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.'' The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 185.</ref><ref>Randall Collins, ''The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change.'' Harvard University Press, 2000, page 202. [http://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA177&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPA202,M1]</ref><ref>[[A.K. Warder]], ''A Course in Indian Philosophy.'' Second edition published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, p. 81.</ref> This empiricism is based broadly on both ordinary sense experience and extrasensory perception enabled by high degrees of mental [[Samādhi (Buddhism)|concentration]].<ref>[[David J. Kalupahana]], ''Buddhist philosophy: A Historical Analysis.'' Published by University of Hawaii Press, 1977, pp. 23–24.</ref>

====Ātman====
[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] is a Sanskrit word that means 'self'. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (Ātman) in favour of [[anicca]] or impermanence.

In [[Hindu philosophy]], especially in the [[Vedanta]] school of [[Hinduism]], Ātman is the [[first principle]],<ref>Deussen, Paul and Geden, A. S. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Cosimo Classics (June 1, 2010). P. 86. ISBN 1616402407.</ref> the ''true'' self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. [[Yajnavalkya]] (c. 9th century BCE), in the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]], uses the word to indicate that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description.<ref>Raju, Poolla Tirupati. Structural Depths of Indian Thought. SUNY Series in Philosophy. P. 26. ISBN 0-88706-139-7.</ref> While, older Upanishads such as the Brihadaranyaka, mention several times that the Self is described as ''[[Neti neti]] or not this - not this'',<ref>Swami Prabhavananda, The Upanishads: Breath of the Eternal, http://www.atmajyoti.org/up_brihadaranyaka_upanishad_text.asp</ref> Upanishads post [[Buddhism]], like the [[Maitri Upanishad]], define Ātman as only the defiled individual self, rather than the universal self.<ref name="page34">Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 34.</ref> [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] defines Ātman or the [[Self]] as consisting of five [[kosha|sheaths]] (kosha): the bodily self consisting the essence of food (annamaya kosha), the vital breath (pranamaya kosha), the mind or will (manomaya kosha), the intellect or capacity to know (vijnanamaya kosha) and bliss ([[anandamaya kosha]]).<ref>DasGupta, Surendranath. A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. P. 46. ISBN 9780521116299.</ref> Knowledge or realization of the Ātman is seen as essential to attain salvation ([[Moksha|liberation]]):
{{Quote|If atman is brahman in a pot (the body), then one need merely break the pot to fully realize the primordial unity of the individual soul with the plentitude of Being that was the Absolute.<ref>David Gordon White, (1996). ''The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 18. Quoted online in InfoRefuge [http://www.inforefuge.com/patanjali-yoga-darsana-hatha-yoga#footnote1sym "Patanjali’s Yoga Darsana – The Hatha Yoga Tradition."] NOTE: Similar identification also made in the Hathayogapradipika (4.50)</ref>}}

Schools of [[Indian philosophy]], such as [[Advaita]] (non-dualism) see Ātman within each living entity as being fully identical with [[Brahman]] – the Principle, whereas other schools such as [[Dvaita]] (dualism) differentiate between the individual atma in living beings, and the Supreme atma ([[Paramatma]]) as being at least partially separate beings.<ref>[[Bhagavata Purana]] [http://vedabase.net/sb/3/28/41/en 3.28.41]</ref> Unlike [[Advaita]], [[Samkhya]] holds blissfullness of Ātman as merely figurative. However, both Samkhya and Advaita consider the ego (asmita, [[ahamkara]]) rather than the Ātman to be the cause of pleasure and pain.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. Self and Identity in Modern Psychology and Indian Thought. Springer; 1 edition (September 30, 1998). P. 263-264. ISBN 978-0-306-45844-6.</ref> Later Advaitic text [[Vidyaranya#Pañcadaśī|Pañcadaśī]] classifies the degrees of Ātman under three headings: Gauna or secondary (anything other than the personality that an individual identifies with), Mithya or false (bodily personality) and Mukhya or primary (the real Self).<ref>Krishnananda, (Swami). The Philosophy of the Panchadasi. The Divine Life Society. Rishikesh. P. 166-169.</ref>

The concept of Ātman was rejected by the Buddha. Terms like [[anatta|anatman]] (not-self) and [[shunyata]] (voidness) are at the core of all Buddhist traditions. The permanent transcendence of the belief in the separate existence of the self is integral to the enlightenment of an [[Arhat]]. The Buddha criticized conceiving theories even of a unitary soul or identity immanent in all things as unskillful.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''The Not-Self Strategy.'' [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/notself.html]. For the sutta see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.15.0.than.html].</ref> In fact, according to the Buddha's statement in Khandha Samyutta 47, all thoughts about self are necessarily, whether the thinker is aware of it or not, thoughts about the five [[skandhas|aggregates]] or one of them.<ref>[[Nanavira Thera]], ''Nibbana and Anatta.'' [http://www.nanavira.org/]. Early Writings -> Nibbana and Anatta -> Nibbana, Atta, and Anatta.</ref>

Despite the rejection of Ātman by Buddhists there were similarities between certain concepts in Buddhism and Ātman. The Upanishadic "Self" shares certain characteristics with [[nibbana]]; both are permanent, beyond suffering, and unconditioned.<ref name="page34"/> Buddhist mysticism is also of a different sort from that found in systems revolving around the concept of a "God" or "Self":
{{quote|If one would characterize the forms of mysticism found in the Pali discourses, it is none of the nature-, God-, or soul-mysticism of F.C. Happold. Though nearest to the latter, it goes beyond any ideas of 'soul' in the sense of immortal 'self' and is better styled 'consciousness-mysticism'.<ref>Peter Harvey, ''Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha.'' In Karel Werner, ed., ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Curzon Press 1989, p. 100.</ref>}}

However, the Buddha shunned any attempt to see the spiritual goal in terms of "Self" because in his framework, the craving for a permanent self is the very thing that keeps a person in the round of uncontrollable rebirth, preventing him or her from attaining nibbana.<ref name="page34"/> At the time of the Buddha some philosophers and meditators posited a ''root'': an abstract principle all things emanated from and that was immanent in all things. When asked about this, instead of following this pattern of thinking, the Buddha attacks it at its very root: the notion of a principle in the abstract, superimposed on experience. In contrast, a person in training should look for a different kind of "root" — the root of [[dukkha]] experienced in the present. According to one Buddhist scholar, theories of this sort have most often originated among meditators who label a particular meditative experience as the ultimate goal, and identify with it in a subtle way.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary to the Mula Pariyaya Sutta, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.001.than.html].</ref>

[[Adi Shankara]] in his [[Adi Shankara bibliography|works]] refuted the Buddhist arguments against Ātman. He suggested that a self-evident conscious agent would avoid infinite regress, since there would be no necessity to posit another agent who would know this. He further argued that a cognizer beyond cognition could be easily demonstrated from the diversity in self existence of the witness and the notion.<ref>Darling, Gregory Joseph. An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism. Motilal Banarasidass Publishers. Delhi, 1987. P. 315-316. ISBN 978-81-208-0363-3.</ref> Furthermore, Shankara thought that no doubts could be raised about the Self, for the act of doubting implies at the very least the existence of the doubter. [[Vidyaranya]], another Advaita Vedantic philosopher, expresses this argument as:
{{Quote|No one can doubt the fact of his own existence. Were one to do so, who would the doubter be?<ref>Deutsch, Eliot. [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction]. East-West Center Press, 1969. P. 50. ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref>}}

====Cosmic Self declared non-existent====
The Buddha denies the existence of the cosmic Self, as conceived in the Upanishadic tradition, in the Alagaddupama Sutta ([[Majjhima Nikaya|M]] I 135-136). Possibly the most famous Upanishadic dictum is ''[[tat tvam asi]]'', "thou art that." Transposed into first person, the [[Pali]] version is ''eso ‘ham asmi'', "I am this." This is said in several suttas to be false. The full statement declared to be incorrect is "This is mine, I am this, this is my self/essence." This is often rejected as a wrong view.<ref>Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, page 38.</ref> The Alagaduppama Sutta rejects this and other obvious echoes of surviving Upanishadic statements as well (these are not mentioned as such in the commentaries, and seem not to have been noticed until modern times). Moreover, the passage denies that one’s self is the same as the world and that one will become the world self at death.<ref name="Richard Francis Gombrich 1996, page 39">Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 39.</ref> The Buddha tells the monks that people worry about something that is non-existent externally (''bahiddhaa asati'') and non-existent internally (''ajjhattam asati''); he is referring respectively to the soul/essence of the world and of the individual.<ref name="Richard Francis Gombrich 1996, page 39"/> A similar rejection of "internal" Self and "external" Self occurs at AN II 212. Both are referring to the Upanishads.<ref name="Richard Francis Gombrich 1996, page 39"/> The most basic presupposition of early Brahminic cosmology is the identification of man and the cosmos (instances of this occur at [[Taittiriya Upanishad|TU]] II.1 and [[Mahabharata|Mbh]] XII.195), and liberation for the yogin was thought to only occur at death, with the adept's union with brahman (as at Mbh XII.192.22).<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, pp. 50, 96.</ref> The Buddha's rejection of these theories is therefore one instance of the Buddha's attack on the whole enterprise of Upanishadic ontology.<ref>Richard Francis Gombrich, ''How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings.'' Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 40.</ref><ref>See also Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, p. 116.</ref>

====Brahmin====
The Buddha redefined the word "brahman" so as to become a synonym for arahant, replacing a distinction based on birth with one based on spiritual attainment.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''Handful of Leaves'' Vol 1, 2nd edition, page 391.</ref><ref>See for example Dhp XXVI, ''Brahmanavagga'', or [[Majjhima Nikaya]] 3.24, or especially MN 98 for three of many examples.</ref> The early Buddhist scriptures furthermore defined purity as determined by one's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting within", or "a rubbish heap of impurity".<ref>Sue Hamilton, ''Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder.'' Routledge 2000, pp. 47, 49.</ref>

The Buddha explains his use of the word ''brahman'' in many places. At [[Sutta Nipata]] 1.7 ''Vasala Sutta'', verse 12, he states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahmin. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahman."<ref>Translated by Piyadassi Thera: [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.1.07.piya.html].</ref> An entire chapter of the [[Dhammapada]] is devoted to showing how a true brahman in the Buddha's use of the word is one who is of totally pure mind, namely, an [[arahant]].<ref>Dhammapada XXVI, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.26.than.html].</ref> However, it is very noteworthy that the Bhagavad Gita also defines Brahmin, and other varnas, as qualities and resulting from actions, and does not mention birth as a factor in determining these. In that regard, the chapter on Brahmins in the Dhammapada may be regarded as being entirely in tune with the definition of a Brahmin in Chapter 18 of the Bhagavad Gita. Both say that a Brahmin is a person having certain qualities.

A defining of feature of the Buddha's teachings is self-sufficiency, so much so as to render the Brahminical priesthood entirely redundant.<ref>Sue Hamilton, ''Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder.'' Routledge 2000, p. 49.</ref>

===Soteriology===
Upanishadic soteriology is focused on the static Self, while the Buddha's is focused on dynamic agency. In the former paradigm, change and movement are an illusion; to realize the Self as the only reality is to realize something that has always been the case. In the Buddha's system by contrast, one has to make things happen.<ref>Richard Gombrich, ''How Buddhism began: the Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings.'' Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 58.</ref>

The fire metaphor used in the [[Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta]] (which is also used elsewhere) is a radical way of making the point that the liberated sage is beyond phenomenal experience. It also makes the additional point that this indefinable, transcendent state is the sage's state even during life. This idea goes against the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, p. 96.</ref>

Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the permanent realization at death of a [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|nondual meditative state]] anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming cool", "going out") were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life.<ref name="Alexander Wynne 2007, page 109">Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, page 109.</ref> The Buddha taught that these meditative states alone do not offer a decisive and permanent end to suffering either during life or after death.<ref>Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha,'' 1983, page 36. Found in ''Founders of Faith,'' Oxford University Press, 1986.</ref>

He stated that achieving a formless attainment with no further practice would only lead to temporary rebirth in a formless realm after death.<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, p. 21.</ref> Moreover, he gave a pragmatic refutation of early Brahminical theories according to which the meditator, the meditative state, and the proposed uncaused, unborn, unanalyzable Self, are identical.<ref name="Michael Carrithers 1983, pp. 41–42">Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha,'' 1983, pp. 41–42. Found in ''Founders of Faith,'' Oxford University Press, 1986.</ref> These theories are undergirded by the Upanishadic correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm, from which perspective it is not surprising that meditative states of consciousness were thought to be identical to the subtle strata of the cosmos.<ref>Alexander Wynne, ''The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.'' Routledge 2007, p. 42.</ref> The Buddha, in contrast, argued that states of consciousness come about caused and conditioned by the yogi's training and techniques, and therefore no state of consciousness could be this eternal Self.<ref name="Michael Carrithers 1983, pp. 41–42"/>

====Nonduality====
Both the Buddha's conception of the liberated person and the goal of early Brahminic yoga can be characterized as nondual, but in different ways. The nondual goal in early Brahminism was conceived in [[ontology|ontological]] terms; the goal was that into which one merges after death. According to Wynne, liberation for the Buddha "... is nondual in another, more radical, sense. This is made clear in the dialogue with Upasiva, where the liberated sage is defined as someone who has passed beyond conceptual dualities. Concepts that might have some meaning in ordinary discourse, such as consciousness or the lack of it, existence and non-existence, etc., do not apply to the sage. For the Buddha, propositions are not applicable to the liberated person, because language and concepts ([[Sutta Nipata|Sn]] 1076: ''vaadapathaa'', ''dhammaa''), as well as any sort of intellectual reckoning (''sankhaa'') do not apply to the liberated sage.<ref>Alexander Wynne 2007, page 109</ref>

====Nirvana====
The word [[nirvana]] (Pali: Nibbana) was first used in its technical sense in Buddhism, and cannot be found in any of the pre-Buddhist Upanishads (It can be found in Jain texts). The use of the term in the [[Bhagavad Gita]] may be a sign of the strong Buddhist influence upon Hindu thought.<ref name="ccbs.ntu.edu.tw"/> Although the word [[nirvana]] is absent from the Upanishads, the word itself existed prior to the Buddha.<ref>''"Nirvana (or Nibbana in Pali language) means literally 'blowing out' or 'quenching'. However, '''since the term is probably pre-Buddhist''', its etymology is not necessarily conclusive for determining its exact meaning as the highest goal of early Buddhism."'' Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, 1. Origins and etymology of the word Nirvana, p. 9, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1998, ISBN 0-415-07310-3, ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3</ref> It must be kept in mind that [[nirvana]] is one of many terms for salvation that occur in the orthodox Buddhist scriptures. Other terms that appear are 'Vimokha', or 'Vimutti', implying 'salvation' and 'deliverance' respectively.<ref>Paul Williams, ''Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history ; Theravāda doctrine.'' Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 147.</ref> Some more words synonymously used for [[nirvana]] in Buddhist scriptures are 'mokkha/[[moksha]]', meaning 'liberation' and 'kevala/kaivalya', meaning 'wholeness'; these words were given a new Buddhist meaning.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mxpFwcAplaAC&pg=PA11&dq=A+common+error+in+examining+the+concept+such+as+nirvana] ''" A common error in examining the concept such as nirvana is to focus too much on the exact denotation of the term at the expense of its wider associations and context, not taking into the account number of synonyms frequently used to describe it. A specific example might be that nirvana is 'amrta', or the deathlessness, but it is important that this refers to the nectar that confers immortality upon gods. In the Buddhist context it refers to a condition in which there is no death, though it is clearly intended to have the positive associations of Indian myth."'' Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, 6. Synonyms for Nirvana ,p. 11, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1998, ISBN 0-415-07310-3, ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3</ref>

==Buddha in Hindu scriptures==
{{Main|Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu}}
[[File:Avatars.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hinduism regards Buddha (bottom right) as one of the 10 avatars of [[Vishnu]].]]
In many [[Puranas]], the Buddha is described as an incarnation of [[Vishnu]] who incarnated in order to delude [[demon]]s away from the Vedic dharma. The [[Bhavishya Purana]] posits:

{{quote|At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the [[Shakyamuni]], and taught the Buddhist dharma for ten years. Then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the [[Kali Yuga|Kali Age]], the path of the Vedas was destroyed and all men became Buddhists. Those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded.|<ref>Wendy O'Flaherty, ''Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology.'' University of California Press, 1976, p. 203.</ref>}}

==Buddha in Buddhist scriptures==
{{Main|Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu}}
According to the biography of the Buddha, he was a Mahapurusha (great being) named Shvetaketu. [[Tushita]] Heaven (Home of the Contented gods) was the name of the realm he dwells before taking his last birth on earth as [[Gautama Buddha]]. There is no more rebirth for a Buddha. Before leaving the Tushita realm to take birth on earth, he designated [[Maitreya]] to take his place there. Maitreya will come to earth as the next Buddha, instead of him coming back again.
[[Krishna]] was a past life of [[Sariputra]], a chief disciple of the Buddha. He has not attained enlightenment during that life as Krishna. Therefore, he came back to be reborn during the life of the Buddha and reached the first stage of Enlightenment after encountering an enlightened disciple of the Buddha. He reached full Arahantship or full Awakening after became ordained in the Buddha's sangha.

==Notable views==

Various Hindu Indian scholars believed that Buddhism is a reformation of Hinduism. That the Buddha only wants to reform some of the malpractices within Hinduism, that is all. And they also assumed that he never wanted to create a new religion. In short, according to them Buddhism is correct Hinduism without any malpractice and evils. And that what is now called Hinduism is malpractice and distorted form of the Vedas. There is the trend of incorporating a certain principles of the Buddha's teaching, while leaving out many other aspect of his teachings unpracticed, or adding various practices from existing belief into the formula. For example, the practice of caste discrimination, aiming to achieve Brahma consciousness in the holy life, emphasis on rituals, etc.
It is impossible to preserve his teaching in its pristine form without establishing an independent religion. The establishment of an independent religion is for the benefit of countless beings who have confidence in his teaching to carry them to Awakening, for generations to come. The dhamma is a gift for anyone who wish to benefit from it regardless of the creed they are following. If someone from a certain belief can only handle taking up a few teachings from him while keep practicing tantra, rituals, and the like, the person is more than welcome to do that. But the establishment of the new religion is for those who are ready to practice the path as he taught it and experience the intended outcome of the path. Therefore, the Buddha established a new religion when he was alive. In the days of the Buddha, he himself already referred to his teaching and sangha as " this Religion". He entrusted the sangha he established to preserve his teaching in its undiluted form so that it will remain effective for later generations.

Furthermore, the Buddha also laid down specific [[Patimokkha]] (basic code of monastic discipline) for those who want to take up the training as taught by him. It was recorded in the [[Vinaya Pitaka]]. On the new-moon and full-moon uposatha days, his ordained disciples would assemble to recite the Patimokkha rules. When each of the seven sections of the rules is recited amidst the assembled Order, if anyone among those present has infringed any of those rules, the person should confess and undergo any the process of correcting the behavior. Silence implies absence of guilt. The Buddha forbid his monks from showing off psychic powers to the laity for the sake of fame. The Parajika containing rules about expulsion from the sangha. That means there is a distinct and established sangha to be expelled from. It is not the case that he simply tries to reform some of the malpractices within Hinduism and say that it is okay for disciples to practice anything else they wanted out there while living in the holy life of his path.

For example :

{{quote|"Should any bhikkhu -- participating in the training and livelihood of the bhikkhus, without having renounced the training, without having declared his weakness -- engage in the sexual act, even with a female animal, he is defeated and no longer in the sangha."

"Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a woman, it is to be confessed."}}

Before dying the Buddha also said :

{{quote|Monks, abide becoming a light and refuge to yourself, not searching another refuge, consider the Teaching as a light, a refuge, and do not search another Teaching|source=Maha-Parinibbana Sutta}}

The Buddha's dharma is for all, regardless of the faith they belong to. Setting up a religion is simply a way to preserve the teaching in its purest form and reduce the possibility of dilution so that it will remain effective for later generations when they want to experience liberation through his teaching.

[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] has claimed that the Buddha did not look upon himself as an innovator, but only a restorer of the way of the [[Upanishads]],<ref>Radhakrishnan: Indian Philosophy, vol.2, p. 469.</ref> despite the fact that the Buddha did not accept the Upanishads, viewing them as comprising a pretentious tradition, foreign to his paradigm.<ref>Carrithers, p. 38.</ref>

The Hindu philosopher, [[Vivekananda]], wrote in glowing terms about Buddha, and visited [[Bodh Gaya]] several times.<ref>Sister Nivedita: The Master as I Saw Him. Koenraad Elst 2001: Who is a Hindu</ref>

[[Ananda Coomaraswamy]], a proponent of the [[Perennial Philosophy]], claimed:

{{quote|Hinduism is a religion both of [[Eternity]] and [[Time]], while [[Gautama]] looks upon Eternity alone. it is not really fair to Gautama or to the Brahmans to contrast their Dharma; for they do not seek to cover the same ground. We must compare the Buddhist ethical ideal with the identical standard of Brahmanhood expected of the Brahman born; we must contrast the Buddhist monastic system with the Brahmanical orders; the doctrine of [[Anatta]] with the doctrine of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], and here we shall find identity. Buddhism stands for a restricted ideal, which contrasts with Brahmanism as a part contrasts with the whole.|<ref>COOMARASWAMY, Ananda Kentish: Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Citadel Press, Secaucus NJ, 1988 (1916).</ref>}}

He also maintained:

{{quote|The more superficially one studies Buddhism, the more it seems to differ from [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]] in which it originated; the more profound our study, the more difficult it becomes to distinguish Buddhism from Brahmanism, or to say in what respects, if any, Buddhism is really unorthodox.|<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN8170172772&id=tH7KRNqIin4C&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=Buddhism+and+Hinduism&sig=TxE6c3_NXwI5MxTOFyLUWsCz3DQ] Ellora Concept and Style by Carmel Berkson</ref>}}

Some Hindu scholars have also accepted Buddhism as a fulfillment of Sanatana Dharma philosophy:<ref>Speech delivered in Colombo in 1927, quoted by Gurusevak Upadhyaya: Buddhism and Hinduism, p. iii., and Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu (2001)</ref>

{{quote|The relation between Hinduism (by Hinduism, I mean the religion of the Vedas) and what is called Buddhism at the present day, is nearly the same as between Judaism and Christianity. Jesus Christ was a Jew, and Shakya Muni was a Hindu. The Jews rejected Jesus Christ, nay, crucified him, and the Hindus have accepted Shakya Muni as God and worship him. But the real difference that we Hindus want to show between modern Buddhism and what we should understand as the teachings of Lord Buddha, lies principally in this: Shakya Muni came to preach nothing new. He also, like Jesus, came to fulfill and not to destroy.|sign=[[Swami Vivekananda]]|source=<ref>[http://www.hindunet.org/vivekananda/chicago/buddhism_hinduism Buddhism: A fulfilment of Hinduism]</ref>}}

Steven Collins sees such Hindu claims regarding Buddhism as part of an effort - itself a reaction to Christian proselytizing efforts in India - to show that "all religions are one", and that Hinduism is uniquely valuable because it alone recognizes this fact.<ref>Steven Collins, ''Selfless Persons.'' Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 9.</ref>

The 14th and current [[Dalai Lama]], [[Tenzing Gyatso]], has stated that Hinduism and Buddhism are twins.<ref>http://www.lifepositive.com/Spirit/world-religions/buddhism/dalai-interview.asp</ref><ref>http://www.newkerala.com/news/fullnews-15003.html</ref><ref>http://www.tibetcustom.com/article.php?story=20091221223008985</ref><ref>http://www.dharmacafe.com/index.php/news-briefs/article/buddhism-and-hinduism-are-like-twins-dalai-lama/</ref>

Some scholars have written that Buddhism should be regarded as "reformed Brahmanism",<ref>Christian Lindtner: "From Brahmanism to Buddhism", Asian Philosophy, 1999, John Woodroffe (Arthur Avalon): Shakti and Shakta, Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu (2001).</ref> and many Hindus consider Buddhism a sect of Hinduism.{{Citation needed|reason=need to find sources yet|date=June 2009}}

[[Alan Watts]] wrote the following:

{{quote|Being a Hindu really involves living in India. Because of the differences of climate, or arts, crafts, and technology, you cannot be a Hindu in the full sense in Japan or in the United States. Buddhism is Hinduism stripped for export. The Buddha was a reformer in the highest sense: someone who wants to go to the original form, or to re-form it for the needs of a certain time... Buddha is the man who woke up, who discovered who he really was. The crucial issue wherein Buddhism differs from Hinduism is that it doesn't say who you are; it has no idea, no concept. I emphasize the words ''idea'' and ''concept.'' It has no idea and no concept of God because Buddhism is not interested in concepts, it is interested in direct experience only.|<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=p4iFh9QKv-AC&pg=PT9&lpg=PT9&dq=%22hinduism+stripped+for+export%22&source=web&ots=0NDEjLc-sG&sig=Edpy56Miyg-IBLmbgFmhIQ67zNw Alan Watts edited Transcripts]</ref>}}

Buddhist scholar Rahula Walpole has written that the Buddha fundamentally denied all speculative views, such as the doctrinal Upanishadic belief in Atman.<ref>Walpola Rahula, ''What the Buddha Taught,'' p. 51.</ref>

[[B. R. Ambedkar]], the founder of the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]], believed that Buddhism offered an opportunity for low-caste and [[dalit|untouchable]] Hindus to achieve greater respect and dignity because of its non-caste doctrines. Among the 22 vows he prescribed to his followers is an injunction against having faith in [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva|Mahesh]]. He also regarded the belief that the Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu as "false propaganda".<ref>Ambedkarite website, http://www.jaibheem.com/22%20Vows.htm</ref>

According to "Hinduism and Buddhism An Historical Sketch", Sir [[Charles Elliot]] who was a British diplomat mentioned that this correlates with the Rig Veda of Hinduism. Both texts mentioned that Vishnu and Shiva are minor deities instead of the Lords of the Universe as popularly known by worshippers:

{{quote|Vishnu and [[Rudra]] (Shiva) are known even to the [[Rig Veda]] but as deities of no special eminence. It is only after the Vedic age that they became , each for his own worshippers, undisputed Lords of the Universe…..The Pali Pitakas frequently introduce popular deities , but give no prominence to Vishnu and Siva. They are apparently mentioned under the names of Venhu and Isana, but are not differentiated from a host of spirits now forgotten. ….The suttas of the Digha Nikaya in which these lists of deities occur were perhaps composed before 300 B.C.|Sir Charles Elliot}}

==See also==
{{refbegin|2}}
*[[Brahma (Buddhism)]]
*[[Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu]]
*[[Comparative religion]]
*[[Eastern art history]]
*[[Jambudvipa]]
*[[Kanheri Caves]]
*[[Vegetarianism in Buddhism]]
{{refend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|32}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Gombrich
|first=Richard
|title=How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings
|place=New Delhi
|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
|author-link=Richard Gombrich
|isbn=81-215-0812-6
|ref=harv
|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
| year=1997}}
*{{Cite book
|last1=Robinson
|first1=Richard
|last2=Johnson
|first2=Willard
|last3=Thanissaro
|first3=Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff)
|year=2005
|place=Belmont, California
|isbn=0-534-55858-5
|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning
|title=Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction
|ref=harv
|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}

*{{cite book |series= |last=Zaehner |first=R. C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gītā |year=1969 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |isbn=0-19-501666-1 }}

== Further reading ==
<div class="references-small">
*N.N Bhattacharyya: Buddhism in the History of Indian Ideas.
*Chitrarekha V. Kher: Buddhism as Presented by the Brahmanical Systems.
*Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish: Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Citadel Press, Secaucus NJ, 1988 (1916).
*— (with Sister Nivedita): Hindus and Buddhists. Mystic Press, London 1987 (c. 1911).
*Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish: [http://www.goldenelixir.com/press/ind_01_hinduism_&_buddhism.html ''Hinduism and Buddhism''] (Golden Elixir Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-9843082-3-1 [New edition including additions and changes contributed by the Author to the French translation of his work]

*Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu, 2001. Delhi: Voice of India. ISBN 978-81-85990-74-3
*GOEL, Sita Ram: Samyak Sambuddha. Bhârata-Bhâratî, Delhi 1997 (1957).
*[[Ram Swarup]]: Buddhism vis-à-vis Hinduism. Voice of India, Delhi 1983 (1958).
*V. Subramaniam, ed.: Buddhist-Hindu Interactions.
*Gurusevak Upadhyaya: Buddhism and Hinduism.
</div>
*Shinjo Ito: "Shinjo:Reflections". Somerset Hall Press 2009.

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Buddha oracle#7 The Way of Victory (The soul (atman and anatta))}}
*[http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/12-devas.shtml Hindu and Buddhist Gods]
*[http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/anand.pdf Gandhi and Lord Buddha]
*[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/26715.htm Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?] by David Loy, National Univ. of Singapore.
*[[:s:The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 1/Addresses at The Parliament of Religions/Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism|Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism]]
*[http://www.byomakusuma.org/EnlightenmentBuddhismVis%C3%A0VisHinduism/tabid/72/Default.aspx Enlightenment: Buddhism Vis-à-Vis Hinduism] by Acharya Mahayogi Sridhar Rana

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Portalbar|Indian religions|Buddhism|Hinduism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Buddhism And Hinduism}}
[[Category:Buddhism in India]]
[[Category:Buddhism and other religions|Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hinduism and other religions]]

Revision as of 00:57, 31 August 2013

The horse is occasionally grey in winter.

Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_and_Hinduism&oldid=570883134"