Brown recluse spider: Difference between revisions
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==Distribution== |
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[[File:Brown-recluse-coin-edit.jpg|right|thumb|A SUPER DUPER SMALL brown recluse compared to a [[Cent (United States coin)|US penny]] (diameter 0.75 inches, 19.05mm)]] |
[[File:Brown-recluse-coin-edit.jpg|right|thumb|A SUPER SUPER DUPER SMALL brown recluse compared to a [[Cent (United States coin)|US penny]] (diameter 0.75 inches, 19.05mm)]] |
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The brown recluse spider is native to the United States from the southern [[Midwest]] south to the Gulf of Mexico. The native range lies roughly south of a line from southeastern [[Nebraska]] through southern [[Iowa]], [[Illinois]], and [[Indiana]] to southwestern [[Ohio]]. In the southern states, it is native from central [[Texas]] to western [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and north to [[Kentucky]].<ref>{{cite web | author=Jone SC | title=Ohio State University Fact Sheet: Brown Recluse Spider. url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2061.html | accessdate=2006-09-02}}</ref><ref name="NEJM2005-Vetter">{{cite journal | author = Swanson D, Vetter R | title = Bites of brown recluse spiders and suspected necrotic arachnidism. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 352 | issue = 7 | pages = 700–7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15716564 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra041184}}</ref> |
The brown recluse spider is native to the United States from the southern [[Midwest]] south to the Gulf of Mexico. The native range lies roughly south of a line from southeastern [[Nebraska]] through southern [[Iowa]], [[Illinois]], and [[Indiana]] to southwestern [[Ohio]]. In the southern states, it is native from central [[Texas]] to western [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and north to [[Kentucky]].<ref>{{cite web | author=Jone SC | title=Ohio State University Fact Sheet: Brown Recluse Spider. url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2061.html | accessdate=2006-09-02}}</ref><ref name="NEJM2005-Vetter">{{cite journal | author = Swanson D, Vetter R | title = Bites of brown recluse spiders and suspected necrotic arachnidism. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 352 | issue = 7 | pages = 700–7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15716564 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra041184}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 15:01, 9 May 2012
Brown recluse spider | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
Class: | Arachnida |
Order: | Araneae |
Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
Family: | Sicariidae |
Genus: | Loxosceles |
Species: | L. reclusa
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Binomial name | |
Loxosceles reclusa | |
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The brown recluse spider or violin spider, Loxosceles reclusa, Sicariidae (formerly placed in a family "Loxoscelidae") is a spider with venomous bite.
Brown recluse spiders are usually between 6–20 mm (1⁄4 in and 3⁄4 in), but may grow larger. While typically light to medium brown, they range in color from cream-colored to dark brown or blackish gray. The cephalothorax and abdomen may not necessarily be the same color. These spiders usually have markings on the dorsal side of their cephalothorax, with a black line coming from it that looks like a violin with the neck of the violin pointing to the rear of the spider, resulting in the nicknames fiddleback spider, brown fiddler or violin spider.
Description
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Loxosceles_reclusa_adult_male_4.jpg/220px-Loxosceles_reclusa_adult_male_4.jpg)
Life-cycle
Adult brown recluse spiders often live about one to two years. Each female produces several egg sacs over a period of two to three months, from May to July, with approximately fifty eggs in each sac. The eggs hatch in about one month. The spiderlings take about one year to grow to adulthood. The brown recluse spider is resilient, and can tolerate up to six months of extreme drought and scarcity or absence of food, most notably observed on one occasion to survive in controlled captivity for over five seasons without food.[1]
Behavior
A brown recluse's stance on a flat surface is usually with all legs radially extended. When alarmed it may lower its body, withdraw the forward two legs straight rearward into a defensive position, withdraw the rearmost pair of legs into a position for lunging forward, and stand motionless with pedipalps raised. The pedipalps in mature specimens are dark, quite prominent, and are normally held horizontally forward. When threatened it usually flees, seemingly to avoid a conflict, and if detained may further avoid contact with quick horizontal rotating movements. The spider does not usually jump unless touched brusquely, and even then its avoidance movement is more of a horizontal lunge rather than a vaulting of itself entirely off the surface. When running the brown recluse does not appear to leave a silk line behind, which at any rate might make it more easily tracked when it is being pursued. Movement at virtually any speed is an evenly paced gait with legs extended. When missing a leg or two it appears to favor this same gait, although (presumably when a leg has been injured) it may move and stand at rest with one leg slightly withdrawn. During travel it stops naturally and periodically when renewing its internal hydraulic blood pressure that, like most spiders, it requires to renew strength in the legs.
Habitat
Recluse spiders build irregular webs that frequently include a shelter consisting of disorderly threads. The wild variety lives in the southern states ranging from central Texas to western Georgia, and the domestic variety lives in the lower reaches of the Midwest. They frequently build their webs in woodpiles and sheds, closets, garages, plenum, cellars and other places that are dry and generally undisturbed. When dwelling in human residences they seem to favor cardboard, possibly because it mimics the rotting tree bark which they inhabit naturally. They have also been encountered in shoes, inside dressers, in bed sheets of infrequently used beds, in clothes stacked or piled or left lying on the floor, inside work gloves, behind baseboards and pictures, in toilets, and near sources of warmth when ambient temperatures are lower than usual. Human-recluse contact often occurs when such isolated spaces are disturbed and the spider feels threatened. Unlike most web weavers, they leave these lairs at night to hunt. Males move around more when hunting than do females, which tend to remain nearer to their webs.
Distribution
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Brown-recluse-coin-edit.jpg/220px-Brown-recluse-coin-edit.jpg)
The brown recluse spider is native to the United States from the southern Midwest south to the Gulf of Mexico. The native range lies roughly south of a line from southeastern Nebraska through southern Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana to southwestern Ohio. In the southern states, it is native from central Texas to western Georgia and north to Kentucky.[2][3]
Despite rumors to the contrary, the brown recluse spider has not established itself in California or anywhere outside its native range.[4] Over the last century, occasional spiders have been intercepted in various states where they have no known established populations; these spiders may be transported fairly easily, though the lack of established populations well outside the natural range also indicates that such movement has not led to colonization of new areas, after decades of opportunities.[5][6] Note that the occurrence of brown recluses in a single building (such as a warehouse) outside of the native range is not considered a successful colonization; such single-building populations can occur (e.g., several such cases in Florida[7]), but do not spread, and can be easily eradicated.[8]
There are other species of the genus Loxosceles native to the southwestern part of the United States, including California, that may resemble the brown recluse, but these species have never been documented as medically significant. The number of "false positive" reports based on misidentifications is considerable; in a nationwide study where people submitted spiders that they thought were brown recluses, of 581 from California only 1 was a brown recluse—submitted by a family that moved from Missouri and brought it with them (compared to specimens submitted from Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, where between 75% and 90% were recluses).[9] From this study, the most common spider submitted from California as a brown recluse was in the genus Titiotus, whose bite is deemed harmless. A similar study documented that various arachnids were routinely misidentified by physicians, pest control operators, and other non-expert authorities, who told their patients or clients that the spider they had was a brown recluse when in fact it was not.[10] Despite the absence of brown recluses from the Western U.S., physicians in the region commonly diagnose "brown recluse bites", leading to the popular misperception that the spiders occur there.[11]
Bite
As suggested by its specific epithet reclusa (recluse), the brown recluse spider is rarely aggressive, and bites from the species are uncommon. In 2001, more than 2,000 brown recluse spiders were removed from a heavily infested home in Kansas, yet the four residents who had lived there for years were never harmed by the spiders, despite many encounters with them.[12] The spider usually bites only when pressed against the skin, such as when tangled within clothes, towels, bedding, inside work gloves, etc. Many human victims report having been bitten after putting on clothes that had not been worn recently, or had been left for many days undisturbed on the floor. However, the fangs of the brown recluse are so tiny they are unable to penetrate most fabric.[13]
The bite frequently is not felt initially and may not be immediately painful, but it can be serious. The brown recluse bears a potentially deadly hemotoxic venom. Most bites are minor with no necrosis. However, a small number of brown recluse bites do produce severe dermonecrotic lesions (i.e. necrosis); an even smaller number produce severe cutaneous (skin) or viscerocutaneous (systemic) symptoms. In one study of clinically-diagnosed brown recluse bites, skin necrosis occurred 37% of the time, while systemic illness occurred 14% of the time.[14] In these cases, the bites produced a range of symptoms common to many members of the Loxosceles genus known as loxoscelism, which may be cutaneous and viscerocutaneous. In very rare cases, bites can even cause hemolysis—the bursting of red blood cells.[15]
Most brown recluse bites do not result in necrosis or systemic effects. When both types of loxoscelism do result, systemic effects may occur before necrosis, as the venom spreads throughout the body in minutes. Children, the elderly, and the debilitatingly ill may be more susceptible to systemic loxoscelism. The systemic symptoms most commonly experienced include nausea, vomiting, fever, rashes, and muscle and joint pain. Rarely, such bites can result in hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, organ damage, and even death.[16] Most fatalities are in children under the age of seven[17] or those with a weak immune system.
While the majority of brown recluse spider bites do not result in any symptoms, cutaneous symptoms occur more frequently than systemic symptoms. In such instances, the bite forms a necrotizing ulcer that destroys soft tissue and may take months to heal, leaving deep scars. These bites usually become painful and itchy within 2 to 8 hours. Pain and other local effects worsen 12 to 36 hours after the bite, and the necrosis develops over the next few days.[18] Over time, the wound may grow to as large as 25 cm (10 inches). The damaged tissue becomes gangrenous and eventually sloughs away.
Validity of necrosis claims
It is estimated that 80% of reported brown recluse bites may be misdiagnosed.[3] There is now an ELISA-based test for brown recluse venom that can determine whether a wound is a brown recluse bite, although it is not commercially available and not in routine clinical use. Clinical diagnoses often use Occam's razor principle in diagnosing bites based on what spiders the patient likely encountered and previous similar diagnoses.[3][14][19]
There are numerous documented infectious and noninfectious conditions that produce wounds that have been initially misdiagnosed as recluse bites by medical professionals, including:
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Many of these conditions are far more common and more likely to be the source of necrotic wounds, even in areas where brown recluse spiders actually occur.[3] The most important of these is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a bacterium whose necrotic lesions are very similar to those induced by recluse bites, and which can be lethal if left untreated.[21] Misdiagnosis of MRSA as spider bites is extremely common (nearly 30% of patients with MRSA reported that they initially suspected a spider bite), and can have fatal consequences.[22]
Reported cases of brown recluse bites occur primarily in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas. There have been many reports of brown recluse bites in California—though a few related species may be found there, none of these are known to bite humans.[4] To date, the reports of bites from areas outside of the spider's native range have been either unverified, or, if verified, the spiders have been moved to those locations by travelers or commerce. Many arachnologists believe that a large number of bites attributed to the brown recluse in the West Coast are either from other spider species or not spider bites at all. For example, the bite of the hobo spider, found in the northwestern United States and southern British Columbia, has been reported to produce similar symptoms as the brown recluse bite. However, the toxicity of hobo spider venom has been called into question as bites have not been proven to cause necrosis.[23]
Numerous other spiders have been associated with necrotic bites in medical literature. Other recluse species, such as the desert recluse (found in the deserts of southwestern United States), are reported to have caused necrotic bite wounds, though only rarely.[24] The hobo spider and the yellow sac spider have also been reported to cause necrotic bites. However, the bites from these spiders are not known to produce the severe symptoms that can follow from a recluse spider bite, and the level of danger posed by these has been called into question.[25][26] So far, no known necrotoxins have been isolated from the venom of any of these spiders, and some arachnologists have disputed the accuracy of spider identifications carried out by bite victims, family members, medical responders, and other non-experts in arachnology. There have been several studies questioning the danger posed by some of these spiders. In these studies, scientists examined case studies of bites in which the spider in question was identified by an expert, and found that the incidence of necrotic injury diminished significantly when "questionable" identifications were excluded from the sample set.[27][28] (For a comparison of the toxicity of several kinds of spider bites, see the list of spiders having medically significant venom.)
Bite treatment
First aid involves the application of an ice pack to control inflammation, the application of aloe vera to soothe and help control the pain,[citation needed] and prompt medical care. If it can be easily captured, the spider should be brought with the patient in a clear, tightly closed container so it may be identified.
Routine treatment should include elevation and immobilization of the affected limb, application of ice, local wound care, and tetanus prophylaxis. Many other therapies have been used with varying degrees of success, including hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, antihistamines (e.g., cyproheptadine), antibiotics, dextran, glucocorticoids, vasodilators, heparin, nitroglycerin, electric shock, curettage, surgical excision, and antivenom.[29][30] None of these treatments have been subjected to randomized controlled trials to conclusively show benefit. In almost all cases, bites are self-limited and typically heal without any medical intervention.[3]
Cases of brown recluse venom traveling along a limb through a vein or artery are rare, but the resulting tissue mortification can affect an area as large as several inches and in extreme cases require excising of the wound.
Specific treatments
In presumed cases of recluse bites, dapsone is often used effectively for the treatment of necrosis, but controlled clinical trials do not demonstrate similar effectiveness.[31] However, dapsone may be effective in treating many "spider bites" because many such cases are actually misdiagnosed microbial infections.[32] There have been conflicting reports about its efficacy in treating brown recluse bites, and some have suggested it should no longer be used routinely, if at all.[33]
Wound infection is rare. Antibiotics are not recommended unless there is a credible diagnosis of infection.[34]
Studies have shown that surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcome. Excision may delay wound healing, cause abscesses, and lead to scarring.[35]
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the application of nitroglycerin patches can be beneficial.[36] Brown recluse venom is a vasoconstrictor, and nitroglycerin causes vasodilation, allowing the venom to be diluted into the bloodstream and fresh blood to flow to the wound, theoretically preventing necrosis (as vasoconstriction may contribute to necrosis). However, one scientific animal study found no benefit in preventing necrosis, with the study's results showing it increased inflammation and caused symptoms of systemic envenoming. The authors concluded the results of the study did not support the use of topical nitroglycerin in brown recluse envenoming. [37]
Antivenom, available in South America for the venom of other species of recluse spiders, appears to be the most promising therapy. They are most effective if given early. However, the bites, often being painless, usually do not present symptoms until 24 or more hours after the event, possibly limiting the effect of this intervention.[38]
Domestic variety as a pest
Due to the emphasized fear of these spiders ever since the increase of public awareness in recent years, extermination of domestic brown recluses is performed frequently in the lower Midwest. Brown recluse spiders possess a variety of adaptations, including the abilities to maintain homeostasis for several seasons with no food or water and to survive after losing limbs.[39] Additionally, the spiders survive significantly longer in a relatively cool, thermally stable environment.[40]
The increased abilities of the spiders to survive during times of starvation, thirst, and regulated room temperatures makes extermination of this species particularly challenging. Many chemicals which have proven effective have now been made illegal or restricted in the U.S., making the use of chemicals to eradicate the spiders impractical.[39] Chemicals that do not kill the spider may cause disruption to its nervous system or other systems, inducing undesirable aggressive behavior.[39]
References
- ^ Horner, N.V. & Stewart, K.W. (1967). "Life history of the brown spider, Loxosceles reclusa, Gertsch and Muliak". Texas Journal of Science. 19: 333.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jone SC. "Ohio State University Fact Sheet: Brown Recluse Spider. url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2061.html".
{{cite web}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Missing or empty|url=
(help); Missing pipe in:|title=
(help) - ^ a b c d e Swanson D, Vetter R (2005). "Bites of brown recluse spiders and suspected necrotic arachnidism". N Engl J Med. 352 (7): 700–7. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041184. PMID 15716564.
- ^ a b Vetter, Rick. "Myth of the Brown Recluse: Fact, Fear, and Loathing". Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ^ [1] University of Florida Fact Sheet
- ^ Palmer, Diane. "Brown recluse spiders blamed for more wounds than they inflict, study suggests". Clemson University Public Service Activities. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
- ^ Vetter, R.S.; Edwards, G.B.; James, L.F. (2004). "Reports of envenomation by brown recluse spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae) outnumber verifications of Loxosceles spiders in Florida". J. Med. Entomol. 41 (4): 593–597. ISSN 0022-2585.
- ^ Edwards, G.B. 2001. The present status and a review of the Brown Recluse and related spiders, Loxosceles spp. (Araneae: Sicariidae), in Florida. Entomology Circular #406, Fla. Dept. Agric. & Consumer Services Division of Plant Industry. 6 pp.
- ^ Vetter, R.S. (2005). "Arachnids submitted as suspected brown recluse spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae): Loxosceles species are virtually restricted to their known distributions but public perception is that they exist throughout the United States". J. Med. Entomol. 42 (4): 512–521. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0512:ASASBR]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-2585. PMID 16119538.
- ^ Vetter, R.S. (2009). "Arachnids misidentified as brown recluse spiders by medical personnel and other authorities in North America". Toxicon. 54 (4): 545–547. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.04.021. PMID 19446575.
- ^ Vetter, R.S.; Cushing, P.E.; Crawford, R.L.; Royce, L.A. (2003). "Diagnoses of brown recluse spider bites (loxoscelism) greatly outnumber actual verifications of the spider's presence in four western American states". Toxicon. 42 (4): 413–418. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(03)00173-9. PMID 14505942.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|author-name-separator=
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ignored (help) - ^ "An Infestation of 2,055 Brown Recluse Spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae) and No Envenomations in a Kansas Home: Implications for Bite Diagnoses in Nonendemic Areas" by Richard S. Vetter and Diane K. Barger, J. Med. Entomol. 39(6): 948Ð951(2002); available online at http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/00222585/v39n6s25.pdf
- ^ Sandidge, J.S. (2009). Brown recluse spiders: A knowledge based guide to control and elimination. McLouth: BRS Pest Control.
- ^ a b Leach J, Bassichis B, Itani K (2004). "Brown recluse spider bites to the head: three cases and a review". Ear Nose Throat J. 83 (7): 465–70. PMID 15372917.
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), in turn citing: Wright SW, Wrenn KD, Murray L, Seger D. Clinical presentation and outcome of brown recluse spider bite. Ann Emerg Med 1997;30: 28–32. - ^ "Greta Binford 1965-". Biography Today. 17 (1). Omnigraphics, Inc.: 14 2007. ISSN 1058-2347.
- ^ Wasserman G (2005). "Bites of the brown recluse spider". N Engl J Med. 352 (19): 2029–30, author reply 2029–30. doi:10.1056/NEJM200505123521922. PMID 15892198.
- ^ Tenn. Boy Ruled Killed by Spider Bite - MSNBC Wire Services - MSNBC.com[dead link]
- ^ Wasserman G, Anderson P (1983–1984). "Loxoscelism and necrotic arachnidism". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 21 (4–5): 451–72. doi:10.3109/15563658308990434. PMID 6381752.
- ^ Gomez H, Krywko D, Stoecker W (2002). "A new assay for the detection of Loxosceles species (brown recluse) spider venom". Ann Emerg Med. 39 (5): 469–74. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.122914. PMID 11973553.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Osterhoudt KC, Zaoutis T, Zorc JJ (2002). "Lyme disease masquerading as brown recluse spider bite". Annals of emergency medicine. 39 (5): 558–61. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.119509. PMID 11973566.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Spider Bite: Coroner's Office Says Pomona Teen died of Staph Infection, Not Spider Bite - ktla.com
- ^ Moran GJ, et al. 2006. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. New England J. Med. 355: 666–74
- ^ Vetter R, Isbister G (2004). "Do hobo spider bites cause dermonecrotic injuries?". Ann Emerg Med. 44 (6): 605–7. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.03.016. PMID 15573036.
- ^ Vetter, R.S. (2008). "Spiders of the genus Loxosceles (Araneae, Sicariidae): a review of biological, medical and psychological aspects regarding envenomations". The Journal of Arachnology. 36: 150–163. doi:10.1636/RSt08-06.1.
- ^ Bennett RG, Vetter RS (2004). "An approach to spider bites. Erroneous attribution of dermonecrotic lesions to brown recluse or hobo spider bites in Canada" (PDF). Canadian Family Physician. 50 (8): 1098–101. PMC 2214648. PMID 15455808.
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ignored (help) - ^ James H. Diaz, MD (April 1, 2005). "Most necrotic ulcers are not spider bites". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 72 (4): 364–367.
- ^ Isbister GK, Gray MR (2003). "White-tail spider bite: a prospective study of 130 definite bites by Lampona species". The Medical journal of Australia. 179 (4): 199–202. PMID 12914510.
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ignored (help) - ^ Isbister GK, Hirst D (2003). "A prospective study of definite bites by spiders of the family Sparassidae (huntsmen spiders) with identification to species level". Toxicon. 42 (2): 163–71. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(03)00129-6. PMID 12906887.
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ignored (help) - ^ Maynor ML, Moon RE, Klitzman B, Fracica PJ, Canada A (1997). "Brown recluse spider envenomation: a prospective trial of hyperbaric oxygen therapy". Acad Emerg Med. 4 (3): 184–92. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1997.tb03738.x. PMID 9063544.
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Maynor ML, Abt JL, Osborne PD (19892). "Brown Recluse Spider Bites: Beneficial Effects of Hyperbaric Oxygen". J. Hyperbaric Med. 7 (2): 89–102. ISSN 0884-1225. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Elston DM, Miller SD, Young RJ 3rd, Eggers J, McGlasson D, Schmidt WH, Bush A. Comparison of colchicine, dapsone, triamcinolone, and diphenhydramine therapy for the treatment of brown recluse spider envenomation: a double-blind, controlled study in a rabbit model. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141(5):595–7.
- ^ Vetter R, Bush S (2002). "The diagnosis of brown recluse spider bite is overused for dermonecrotic wounds of uncertain etiology". Ann Emerg Med. 39 (5): 544–6. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.123594. PMID 11973562.
- ^ Bryant S, Pittman L (2003). "Dapsone use in Loxosceles reclusa envenomation: is there an indication?". Am J Emerg Med. 21 (1): 89–90. doi:10.1053/ajem.2003.50021. PMID 12563594.
- ^ Anderson P (1998). "Missouri brown recluse spider: a review and update". Mo Med. 95 (7): 318–22. PMID 9666677.
- ^ Rees R, Altenbern D, Lynch J, King L (1985). "Brown recluse spider bites. A comparison of early surgical excision versus dapsone and delayed surgical excision". Ann Surg. 202 (5): 659–63. doi:10.1097/00000658-198511000-00020. PMC 1250983. PMID 4051613.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Burton K. "The Brown Recluse Spider: Finally stopped in its tracks". Archived from the original on 2006-04-20. Retrieved 2006-09-02.
- ^ Lowry B, Bradfield J, Carroll R, Brewer K, Meggs W (2001). "A controlled trial of topical nitroglycerin in a New Zealand white rabbit model of brown recluse spider envenomation". Ann Emerg Med. 37 (2): 161–5. doi:10.1067/mem.2001.113031. PMID 11174233.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Isbister G, Graudins A, White J, Warrell D (2003). "Antivenom treatment in arachnidism". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 41 (3): 291–300. doi:10.1081/CLT-120021114. PMID 12807312.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Sandidge, J.S. and Hopwood, J.L. (2005). "Brown Recluse Spiders: A Review of Biology, Life History and Pest Management". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 108 (3/4): 99–108. doi:10.1660/0022-8443(2005)108[0099:BRSARO]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 20058665.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Elzinga, R.J. (1977). "Observations on the Longevity of the Brown Recluse Spider, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch & Mulaik". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 50 (2): 187–8. JSTOR 25082920.
External links
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