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Blue space

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This article is about blue space in urban planning. For the software, see Bluespace (software).
View of Brooklyn Bridge Park from Manhattan Bridge
Christmas lights in Medellín, Colombia, in 2023

In urban planning and design, blue space (or blue infrastructure) comprises areas dominated by surface waterbodies or watercourses. In conjunction with greenspace (parks, gardens, etc. specifically: urban open space), it may help in reducing the risks of heat-related illness from high urban temperatures (urban heat island).[1] Substantial urban waterbodies naturally exist as integral features of the geography of many cities because of their historical development, for example the River Thames in London.[2]

Accessible blue spaces can help revitalizing neighborhoods and promote increased social connectedness[3] as seen on waterfront renovation projects like the Chattanooga Waterfront (Chattanooga, Tennessee), the CityDeck in Green Bay, Wisconsin, or the Brooklyn Bridge Park in New York City,[4] further enhanced by waterfront festivals such as the Christmas lights in Medellin, in Colombia. Design guidelines promoting healthy buildings -such as, WELL -managed by The International WELL Building Institute™ (IWBI™),[5] or Fitwel -developed and managed by The Center for Active Design (CfAD),[6] recommend incorporating including and water features as a strategy to improve the health and wellness of the building occupants, and "the 9 foundations of a Healthy Building" -developed at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health-,[7] also recommends indoor access to nature views or nature-inspired elements.

Because neighborhoods with access to attractive natural features are susceptible to gentrification,[8] the social benefits associated with waterbodies can be unequally distributed, with less affluent areas lacking access to good quality blue spaces.[9]

Health benefits

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Proximity to water bodies may bring some risks to humans, like water-borne diseases in drinking water,[10] flooding risks,[11] or drowning.[12] But scientific evidence shows that exposure to blue spaces is also associated with a variety of health benefits to those near water bodies.[13][14][15] This is described by marine biologist Wallace J. Nichols in his book Blue Mind.[16] Another of the mechanisms by which this phenomenon can be explained is by the Biophilia hypothesis developed by Edward O. Wilson. This theory states that humans have developed a strong connection with nature throughout their evolution that leads to subconscious seeking for natural environments, including green and blue spaces. Recent research has identified three main pathways that can further explain why proximity to green and blue spaces can be beneficial to health.

  • Mitigation addresses these health benefits in relationship to the physical improvements that natural environments bring to the built environment, such as reduction of urban heat island, traffic air pollution or traffic noise.
  • Instoration focuses on the promotion of physical activity and other positive outcomes associated with increased physical activity and social connectivity promoted by natural spaces.
  • Restoration explains how the non-threatening characteristics of the natural environments may reduce negative feelings and increase cognitive restoration.[17]

Assessing the environmental benefits of a blue space intervention can be done by conducting a Health impact assessment (HIA).

Effects on physical health

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Increased physical activity

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Walkers on a coastal path in Michael, Isle of Man

A variety of studies have found that people living near coastal areas, are less sedentary more likely to engage in moderate and vigorous physical activity adequate for health,[18] which could be explained due to the encouraging presence of walk paths along the coast. Another possible explanation is found in the aesthetical attributes of blue spaces that may motivate individuals to engage in physical activities on blue spaces.[19] A study in England found that although more intense activities were conducted on visits to countryside and urban green spaces compared to visits to coastal environments, coastal visits were associated with the highest overall energy expenditure due duration of activity in coastal environments being longer.[20] Results differed by the urbanity or rurality of the respondent's residence and also how far respondents travelled to their destination.

Proximity to water bodies alone is not enough to promote increased levels of physical activity, as those bodies need to be accessible to people. A study focusing on teenagers found that those living near beaches that had a major road between their homes and the water body had lower levels of physical activity than those with a direct access to the beach.[21]

Reduced obesity

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Visiting blue spaces may reduce obesity as it promotes increased physical activity. One study has suggested that living far from usable green space or waterfront in urban areas may increase the risk of obesity.[22]

Improved respiratory health

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Living near blue spaces can improve the quality of life of people with respiratory diseases, such as asthma, which could be explained by the mists and sprays generated by the water movement[23] as shown on a study measuring the impact in health of green and blue spaces for those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).[24]

Mental health

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Improved overall health

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Researchers found that individuals across 15 countries in Europe and Australia report better general health when they live closer to the coast or visit it more often.[15] Researchers also found a reduction of psychiatric cases on people living near green or coastal areas.[25] Some of the studies found that ocean exposure or running along river helped war veterans suffering from PTSD.[26] Others found that engaging in water-related activities such as surfing can help coping with mental health issues and help developing self-confidence and self-reliance skills.[27] A large study looking at links between childhood exposure to blue spaces and adult well-being found that exposure to blue spaces in childhood was associated with better adult well-being.[28]

Improved mood and happiness

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Exposure to blue spaces is also linked to increased happiness. A group of researchers studying the effect of green and blue spaces on happiness used a mobile app to track mood feelings of people when they were near water landscapes. The researchers found increased levels of happiness in people near water bodies.[29] Consistently with the findings focusing on physical health, the positive effects on mood associated to blue spaces seem to diminish as the distance between the residence and the water increases.[30]

Improved recovery from drug and alcohol addiction

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Educational interventions in blue spaces - such as sailing - have been shown to have positive perceived effects on people undergoing drug and alcohol rehabilitation.[31]

Quality assessment tools

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In order to understand how blue spaces may influence health-promoting behaviours, a group of researchers that focuses on blue spaces has developed a set of novel tools specifically designed to quantify the quality and potential health benefits of these spaces, risks associated with their use, and environmental quality. [32] The BlueHealth Environmental Assessment Tool (BEAT) - enables comparable assessment of environmental aspects and attributes that influence access to, use of and health-promoting activities in blue spaces. The tool has been developed to be used by communities and urban/landscape designers.[33][34]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Gunawardena, K.R.; Wells, M.J.; Kershaw, T. (15 April 2017). "Utilising green and bluespace to mitigate urban heat island intensity". Science of the Total Environment. 584–585: 1040–1055. Bibcode:2017ScTEn.584.1040G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.158. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 28161043.
  2. ^ Gunawardena, K.R.; Wells, M.J.; Kershaw, T. (2017). "Utilising green and bluespace to mitigate urban heat island intensity". Science of the Total Environment. 584–585. Elsevier BV: 1040–1055. Bibcode:2017ScTEn.584.1040G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.158. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 28161043.
  3. ^ White, Mathew P.; Elliott, Lewis R.; Gascon, Mireia; Roberts, Bethany; Fleming, Lora E. (1 December 2020). "Blue space, health and well-being: A narrative overview and synthesis of potential benefits". Environmental Research. 191: 110169. Bibcode:2020ER....19110169W. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110169. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 32971082.
  4. ^ Gamble, David (2016). Rebuilding the American city : design and strategy for the 21st century core. New York, NY. ISBN 9781138798144.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ "International WELL Building Institute". www.wellcertified.com.
  6. ^ "Fitwel". www.fitwel.org. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  7. ^ "9 Foundations of a Healthy Building". 9 Foundations. Retrieved 2020-12-29.
  8. ^ Ngom, Roland; Gosselin, Pierre; Blais, Claudia (1 January 2016). "Reduction of disparities in access to green spaces: Their geographic insertion and recreational functions matter". Applied Geography. 66: 35–51. Bibcode:2016AppGe..66...35N. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.11.008. ISSN 0143-6228.
  9. ^ Schüle, Steffen Andreas; Hilz, Lisa Karla; Dreger, Stefanie; Bolte, Gabriele (4 April 2019). "Social Inequalities in Environmental Resources of Green and Blue Spaces: A Review of Evidence in the WHO European Region". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (7): 1216. doi:10.3390/ijerph16071216. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6480666. PMID 30987381.
  10. ^ "WHO | Water-related diseases: information sheets". WHO. Archived from the original on October 2, 2016.
  11. ^ Kaźmierczak, Aleksandra; Cavan, Gina (2011). "Surface water flooding risk to urban communities: Analysis of vulnerability, hazard and exposure". Landscape and Urban Planning. 103 (2): 185–197. Bibcode:2011LUrbP.103..185K. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.07.008.
  12. ^ "Drowning Facts | Drowning Prevention | CDC". 2 September 2021.
  13. ^ Britton, Easkey; Kindermann, Gesche; Domegan, Christine; Carlin, Caitriona (18 December 2018). "Blue care: a systematic review of blue space interventions for health and wellbeing". Health Promotion International. 35 (1): 50–69. doi:10.1093/heapro/day103. ISSN 0957-4824. PMC 7245048. PMID 30561661.
  14. ^ Gascon, Mireia; Zijlema, Wilma; Vert, Cristina; White, Mathew P.; Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark J. (1 November 2017). "Outdoor blue spaces, human health and well-being: A systematic review of quantitative studies". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 220 (8): 1207–1221. Bibcode:2017IJHEH.220.1207G. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.004. hdl:10230/33228. ISSN 1438-4639. PMID 28843736.
  15. ^ a b Geiger, Sandra; White, Mathew; Davison, Sophie; Zhang, Lei; McMeel, Oonagh; Kellett, Paula; Fleming, Lora (24 May 2023). "Coastal proximity and visits are associated with better health but may not buffer health inequalities". Communications Earth & Environment. 4 (1): 166. Bibcode:2023ComEE...4..166G. doi:10.1038/s43247-023-00818-1. S2CID 258894654.
  16. ^ Cimini, Marla. "'Blue Mind': Why being near the water makes you happy". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  17. ^ Markevych, Iana; Schoierer, Julia; Hartig, Terry; Chudnovsky, Alexandra; Hystad, Perry; Dzhambov, Angel M.; de Vries, Sjerp; Triguero-Mas, Margarita; Brauer, Michael; Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark J.; Lupp, Gerd; Richardson, Elizabeth A.; Astell-Burt, Thomas; Dimitrova, Donka; Feng, Xiaoqi; Sadeh, Maya; Standl, Marie; Heinrich, Joachim; Fuertes, Elaine (1 October 2017). "Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance". Environmental Research. 158: 301–317. Bibcode:2017ER....158..301M. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.028. hdl:10044/1/58798. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 28672128. S2CID 1231444.
  18. ^ Bauman, Adrian; Smith, Ben; Stoker, Lyn; Bellew, Bill; Booth, Michael (1999). "Geographical influences upon physical activity participation: evidence of a 'coastal effect'". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 23 (3): 322–324. doi:10.1111/j.1467-842X.1999.tb01265.x. ISSN 1753-6405. PMID 10388181. S2CID 697709.
  19. ^ Humpel, Nancy; Owen, Neville; Iverson, Don; Leslie, Eva; Bauman, Adrian (February 2004). "Perceived environment attributes, residential location, and walking for particular purposes". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 26 (2): 119–125. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2003.10.005. ISSN 0749-3797. PMID 14751322.
  20. ^ Elliott, L. R., White, M. P., Taylor, A. H., Herbert, S. (1 August 2015). "Energy expenditure on recreational visits to different natural environments". Social Science & Medicine. 139: 53–60. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.038. hdl:10026.1/3816. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 26151390.
  21. ^ Edwards, Nicole Joy; Giles-Corti, Billie; Larson, Ann; Beesley, Bridget (1 July 2014). "The Effect of Proximity on Park and Beach Use and Physical Activity Among Rural Adolescents". Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 11 (5): 977–984. doi:10.1123/jpah.2011-0332. ISSN 1543-5474. PMID 23493147.
  22. ^ Halonen, Jaana I.; Kivimäki, Mika; Pentti, Jaana; Stenholm, Sari; Kawachi, Ichiro; Subramanian, S. V.; Vahtera, Jussi (2014). "Green and blue areas as predictors of overweight and obesity in an 8-year follow-up study". Obesity. 22 (8): 1910–1917. doi:10.1002/oby.20772. ISSN 1930-739X. PMID 24771608. S2CID 21318788.
  23. ^ Gaisberger, Martin; Šanović, Renata; Dobias, Heidemarie; Kolarž, Predrag; Moder, Angelika; Thalhamer, Josef; Selimović, Amina; Huttegger, Isidor; Ritter, Markus; Hartl, Arnulf (1 October 2012). "Effects of Ionized Waterfall Aerosol on Pediatric Allergic Asthma". Journal of Asthma. 49 (8): 830–838. doi:10.3109/02770903.2012.705408. ISSN 0277-0903. PMID 22861198. S2CID 18607451.
  24. ^ Moitra, Subhabrata; Benet, Marta; Arbillaga-Etxarri, Ane; Marín, Alicia; Barberan-Garcia, Anael; Borrell, Eulàlia; Rodríguez, Diego; Gimeno-Santos, Elena; Balcells, Eva; Koreny, Maria; Monteagudo, Mónica; Torán-Montserrat, Pere; Vall-Casas, Pere; Rodríguez-Roisin, Robert; Garcia-Aymerich, Judith (15 September 2018). "Association between interpersonal and environmental factors and health-related quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)". European Respiratory Journal. 52 (suppl 62): PA1179. doi:10.1183/13993003.congress-2018.PA1179. ISSN 0903-1936. S2CID 57865451.
  25. ^ Alcock, I.; White, M. P.; Lovell, R.; Higgins, S. L.; Osborne, N. J.; Husk, K.; Wheeler, B. W. (1 October 2015). "What accounts for 'England's green and pleasant land'? A panel data analysis of mental health and land cover types in rural England". Landscape and Urban Planning. 142: 38–46. Bibcode:2015LUrbP.142...38A. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.05.008. hdl:10871/17512. ISSN 0169-2046.
  26. ^ Dustin, Daniel, et al. "The Promise of River Running as a Therapeutic Medium for Veterans Coping with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder." Therapeutic recreation journal 45.4 (2011): 326-40. ProQuest. Web. 10 Nov. 2020.
  27. ^ Godfrey, C. "The Positive Impact of Structured Surfing Courses on the Wellbeing of Vulnerable Young People." Community Practitioner. 88.1 (2015): 26. Web.
  28. ^ Vitale, V., Martin, L., White, M. P., Elliott, L. R., Wyles, K. J., Browning, M. H. E. M., Pahl, S., Stehl, P., Bell, S., Bratman, G. N., Gascon, M., Grellier, J., Lima, M. L., Lõhmus, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Ojala, A., Taylor, J., Bosch, M. van den, Weinstein, N., Fleming, L. E. (28 September 2022). "Mechanisms underlying childhood exposure to blue spaces and adult subjective well-being: An 18-country analysis". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 84: 101876. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101876. hdl:10871/131671. ISSN 0272-4944.
  29. ^ MacKerron, George; Mourato, Susana (1 October 2013). "Happiness is greater in natural environments". Global Environmental Change. 23 (5): 992–1000. Bibcode:2013GEC....23..992M. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.03.010. ISSN 0959-3780. S2CID 15458861.
  30. ^ Brereton, Finbarr; Clinch, J. Peter; Ferreira, Susana (1 April 2008). "Happiness, geography and the environment". Ecological Economics. 65 (2): 386–396. Bibcode:2008EcoEc..65..386B. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.07.008. ISSN 0921-8009.
  31. ^ Robert White, Charles Abraham, Jane R. Smith, Mathew White & Petra K. Staiger (2016) Recovery under sail: Rehabilitation clients' experience of a sail training voyage, Addiction Research & Theory, 24:5, 355-365, DOI: 10.3109/16066359.2015.1123252
  32. ^ Grellier, J.; Mishra, H. S.; Elliott, L. R.; Wuijts, S.; Braubach, M. F. W.; Hall, K. L.; Bell, S.; White, M. P.; Fleming, L. E. (July 2020), The BlueHealth Toolbox – Guidance for urban planners and designers., doi:10.5281/zenodo.3786387, retrieved 14 October 2022
  33. ^ Himansu Sekhar Mishra, Simon Bell, Peeter Vassiljev, Friedrich Kuhlmann, Gloria Niin, James Grellier (1 March 2020). "The development of a tool for assessing the environmental qualities of urban blue spaces". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 49: 126575. Bibcode:2020UFUG...4926575M. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126575. hdl:20.500.11820/902e42eb-0610-45a6-b692-35232521b26e. ISSN 1618-8667.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Mishra, H. S., Bell, S., Grellier, J., White, M. P. (2021). "Testing the reliability and effectiveness of a new tool for assessing urban blue spaces: The BlueHealth environmental assessment tool (BEAT)" (PDF). Health & Place. 68. Pergamon: 102526. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102526. hdl:20.500.11820/f4f39367-f459-4365-b82d-1ebd9d9023a4. PMID 33610888.
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