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A '''blood bank''' is a cache or bank of [[blood]] or [[List of human blood components|blood components]], gathered as a result of [[blood donation]] or collection, stored and preserved for later use in [[blood transfusion]]. The term "blood bank" typically refers to a division of a hospital where the storage of blood product occurs and where proper testing is performed (to reduce the risk of transfusion related adverse events). However, it sometimes refers to a collection center, and indeed some hospitals also perform collection. |
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==Collection and processing== |
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In the U.S., certain standards are set for the collection and processing of each blood product. "Whole blood" (WB) is the proper name for one defined product, specifically unseparated venous blood with an approved preservative added. Most blood for transfusion is collected as whole blood. [[Autologous]] donations are sometimes transfused without further modification, however whole blood is typically separated (via centrifugation) into its components, with [[red blood cell]]s (RBC) in solution being the most commonly used product. Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at 33.8-42.8 F (1-6 C), with maximum permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42 days respectively. Red Blood Cell (RBC) units can also be frozen when buffered with glycerol, but this is an expensive and time consuming process, and is rarely done. Frozen red cells are given an expiration date of up to 10 years and are stored at -85F (-65C).{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} |
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The less-dense [[blood plasma]] is made into a variety of frozen components, and is labeled differently based on when it was frozen and what the intended use of the product is. If the plasma is frozen promptly and is intended for transfusion, it is typically labeled as [[fresh frozen plasma]]. If it is intended to be made into other products, it is typically labeled as recovered plasma or plasma for [[plasma fractionation|fractionation]]. [[Cryoprecipitate]] can be made from other plasma components. These components must be stored at -0F (-17.7C) or colder, but are typically stored at -22F (-30C). The layer between the red cells and the plasma is referred to as the [[buffy coat]] and is sometimes removed to make [[platelets]] for transfusion. Platelets are typically pooled before transfusion and have a shelf life of 5–7 days, or 3 days once the facility that collected them has completed their tests. Platelets are stored at room temperature (72F=22.2C) and must be rocked/agitated. Since they are stored at room temperature in nutritive solutions, they are at relatively high risk for growing [[bacteria]]. |
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Some blood banks also collect products by [[apheresis]]. The most common component collected is plasma via [[plasmapheresis]], but red blood cells and platelets can be collected by similar methods. These products generally have the same shelf life and storage conditions as their conventionally-produced counterparts. |
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Donors are sometimes paid; in the U.S. and Europe, most blood ''for transfusion'' is collected from volunteers while [[blood plasma|plasma]] for other purposes may be from paid donors. |
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Most collection facilities as well as hospital blood banks also perform testing to determine the [[blood type]] of patients and to identify compatible blood products, along with a battery of tests (e.g. disease) and treatments (e.g. leukocyte filtration) to ensure or enhance quality. The increasingly recognized problem of inadequate efficacy of transfusion<ref>Marik PE, Corwin HL. Efficacy of red blood cell transfusion in the critically ill: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:2667-2674.</ref> is also raising the profile of RBC viability and quality. Notably, U.S. hospitals spend more on dealing with the consequences of transfusion-related complications than on the combined costs of buying, testing/treating, and transfusing their blood.<ref>Shander A, Hofmann A, Gombotz H, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR. Estimating the cost of blood: past, present, and future directions. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2007; 21:271-289.</ref> |
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==Storage and management== |
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Routine blood storage is 42 days or 6 weeks for stored packed '''red blood cells''' (also called "StRBC" or "pRBC"), by far the most commonly transfused blood product, and involves refrigeration but usually not freezing. There has been increasing controversy about whether a given product unit's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically on whether "older" blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications.<ref>http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/11/the-shelf-life-of-donor-blood/</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703939404574567771148801570.html | work=The Wall Street Journal | title=What's the Shelf Life of Blood? | first=Shirley S. | last=Wang | date=2009-12-01}}</ref> Studies have not been consistent on answering this question,<ref>http://www.annalsofintensivecare.com/content/3/1/2</ref> with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference; nevertheless, as storage time remains the only available way to estimate quality status or loss, a ''first-in-first-out'' inventory management approach is standard presently.<ref>http://www.healthleadersmedia.com/page-2/QUA-289788/Bloods-Shelf-Life-May-Be-as-Short-as-3-Weeks</ref> It is also important to consider that there is large ''variability'' in storage results for different donors, which combined with limited available quality testing, poses challenges to clinicians and regulators seeking reliable indicators of quality for blood products and storage systems.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22229278</ref> |
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Transfusions of '''platelets''' are comparatively far less numerous, but they present unique storage/management issues. Platelets may only be stored for 7 days,<ref>http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/ac/02/briefing/3839b2_02_platelets.htm</ref> due largely to their greater potential for contamination, which is in turn due largely to a higher storage temperature. |
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===RBC storage lesion=== |
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Insufficient transfusion efficacy can result from red blood cell (RBC) blood product units damaged by so-called '''storage lesion''' - a set of biochemical and biomechanical changes which occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation.<ref>Zubair AC: Clinical impact of blood storage lesions. Am J Hematol; 2010; 85: 117-22.</ref> Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused,<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2492818</ref> the biomechanical changes are less so,<ref>Decreased Erythrocyte Deformability After Transfusion and the Effects of Erythrocyte Storage Duration Anesth Analg ANE.0b013e31828843e6; published ahead of print February 28, 2013.</ref> and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon.<ref>http://www.isb-isch2012.org/Poster/P32.htm</ref> |
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Current regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion - including a maximum shelf life (currently 42 days), a maximum auto-hemolysis threshold (currently 1% in the US), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival ''in vivo'' (currently 75% after 24 hours).<ref>http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/115/21/4284.long</ref> However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product;<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22229278</ref> for example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival ''in vivo'' is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal (GMP) processing standards. (Of course, RBC survival does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy.) Opinions vary as to the "best" way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient ''in vivo''.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782802/</ref> In general, there are not yet any ''in vitro'' tests to assess quality deterioration or preservation for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as [[erythrocyte deformability]]<ref>Transfusion. 2012 May;52(5):1010-23. Artificial microvascular network: a new tool for measuring rheologic properties of stored red blood cells. Burns JM, Yang X, Forouzan O, Sosa JM, Shevkoplyas SS.</ref> and [[erythrocyte fragility]] (mechanical).<ref>Vox Sang. 2010 Nov;99(4):325-31. The use of the mechanical fragility test in evaluating sublethal RBC injury during storage.</ref> |
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Many physicians have adopted a so-called "restrictive protocol" - whereby transfusion is held to a minimum - due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions,<ref>Shander A, Hofmann A, Gombotz H, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR: Estimating the cost of blood: past, present, and future directions. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol; 2007; 21: 271-89.</ref> along with the increasing view that many transfusions are inappropriate or use too many RBC units.<ref>http://www.patientsafetysummit.org/_assets/documents/Action%20Plan%20-%20RBC%20Overuse%20-%20January%2013,%202013.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.cap.org/apps/cap.portal?_nfpb=true&cntvwrPtlt_actionOverride=%2Fportlets%2FcontentViewer%2Fshow&_windowLabel=cntvwrPtlt&cntvwrPtlt{actionForm.contentReference}=cap_today%2F0409%2F0409d_easy_does_it.html&_state=maximized&_pageLabel=cntvwr</ref> |
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===Platelet storage lesion=== |
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Platelet storage lesion is a very different phenomenon from RBC storage lesion, due largely to the different functions of the products and purposes of the respective transfusions, along with different processing issues and inventory management considerations.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20513565</ref> |
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===Alternative inventory/release practices=== |
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Although as noted the primary inventory-management approach is FIFO to minimize product expiration, there are some deviations from this policy - both in current practice as well as under research. For example, exchange transfusion of RBC in neonates calls for use of blood product that is 5 days old or less, to "ensure" optimal cell function.<ref>http://www.imj.ie/Archive/IMJ%20June%2007%20Supplement.pdf</ref> Also, some hospital blood banks will attempt to accommodate physicians' requests to provide low-aged RBC product for certain kinds of patients (e.g. cardiac surgery).<ref>Handbook of Pediatric Transfusion Medicine, edited by Ronald Strauss, Naomi Luban; Ch. 2, p. 12.</ref> |
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More recently, novel approaches are being explored to complement or replace FIFO. One is to balance the desire to reduce average product age (at transfusion) with the need to maintain sufficient availability of non-outdated product, leading to a strategic blend of FIFO with ''LIFO'' (last-in-first-out).<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21756261</ref> |
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===Long-term storage=== |
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"Long-term" storage for all blood products is relatively uncommon, compared to routine/short-term storage. [[Cryopreservation]] of red blood cells is done to store rare units for up to 10 years.<ref>{{cite web | title =Circular of Information for the use of Human Blood and Blood Components |
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|pages = page 16| publisher=[[American Association of Blood Banks|AABB]], [[American Red Cross|ARC]], [[America's Blood Centers]] | url=http://www.aabb.org/Documents/About_Blood/Circulars_of_Information/coi0702.pdf | accessdate=2010-10-18}}</ref> The cells are incubated in a [[glycerol]] solution which acts as a [[cryoprotectant]] ("antifreeze") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a freezer at very cold temperatures. The exact temperature depends on the glycerol concentration. |
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==History== |
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An early development leading to the establishment of blood banks occurred in 1915, when [[Richard Lewison]] of [[Mount Sinai Hospital, New York|Mount Sinai Hospital]] in [[New York City]] initiated the use of [[Monosodium citrate|sodium citrate]] as an [[anticoagulant]]. This discovery transformed the blood transfusion procedure from direct (vein-to-vein) to indirect. In the same year, [[Richard Weil]] demonstrated the feasibility of refrigerated storage of anticoagulated blood. The introduction of a [[citrate-glucose]] solution by [[Francis Peyton Rous]] and [[JR Turner]] two years later permitted storage of blood in containers for several days, thus opening the way for the first "blood depot" established in [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] during [[World War I]]. |
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[[Image:Blood bank miss australia.jpg|right|thumb|Blood donation at the [[Royal Melbourne Hospital]] during the 1940s.]] |
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In Russia [[Sergei Yudin (surgeon)|Sergei Yudin]] pioneered the transfusion of cadaveric blood and performed this successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930. Also in 1930 Yudin organized the world's first blood bank at the Nikolay Sklifosovskiy Institute, which set an example for the establishment of further blood banks in different regions of the [[Soviet Union]] and in other countries. By the mid-1930s the Soviet Union had set up a system of at least sixty five large blood centers and more than 500 subsidiary ones, all storing "canned" blood and shipping it to all corners of the country. |
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News of the Soviet experience traveled to the United States, where in 1937 [[Bernard Fantus]], director of therapeutics at the Cook County Hospital in [[Chicago]], established the first hospital blood bank in the United States.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Morris Fishbein, M.D. |encyclopedia=The New Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia |title=Blood Banks |edition=Home Library Edition |year=1976 |publisher=H. S. Stuttman Co |volume=1 |location=New York, N.Y. 10016 |pages=220}}</ref> In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank." Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States. [[Willem Johan Kolff]] organised the first blood bank in Europe (in 1940). |
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In 1939 [[Charles R. Drew]] researched in the field of blood transfusions, developing improved techniques for blood storage, and applied his expert knowledge in developing large-scale blood banks early in World War II. [[Oswald Hope Robertson]], a medical researcher and [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] officer who established the depots, is often regarded as the creator of the first blood bank. The [[University of Louisville]] is also credited for the Blood Bank. |
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An important breakthrough came in 1939-40 when [[Karl Landsteiner]], Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the [[Blood_type#Rhesus|Rh blood group]] system, which was found to be the cause of the majority of transfusion reactions up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by [[John Freeman Loutit|J.F. Loutit]] and Patrick L. Mollison of [[acid-citrate-dextrose]] (ACD) solution, which reduces the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer term storage. |
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Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy, Jr., introduced the plastic bag for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable glass bottles with durable plastic bags allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of Whole Blood. |
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An anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1 was introduced in 1979. It decreased wastage from expiration and facilitated resource sharing among blood banks. Newer solutions contain [[adenine]]. |
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==See also== |
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*[[Blood Data Bank]] |
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*[[Sergei Yudin]] |
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*[[Phlebotomist]] |
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*[[Blood donation]] |
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*[[Charles R. Drew]] |
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*[[Medical technologist]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{pathology}} |
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==External links== |
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* [http://www.simmed.com/Demo/Default.aspx Animated Venipuncture tutorial] |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Blood Bank}} |
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[[Category:Blood banks| ]] |
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