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Once he was old enough to help on his parents' farm, Benjamin's formal education ended. He spent most of the rest of his life at the farm.
Once he was old enough to help on his parents' farm, Benjamin's formal education ended. He spent most of the rest of his life at the farm.


==Clockmaking==
==pen is==


==Neighbors, work, and study==
==Neighbors, work, and study==

Revision as of 18:01, 6 February 2009

Benjamin Banneker (November 9, 1731–October 9, 1806) was a free African American astronomer, mathematician, surveyor, almanac author and farmer.

Family history and early life

Although it is difficult to verify details of Benjamin Banneker's family history, it appears that his grandmother was a European American named Molly Welsh. The story goes that Molly met a slave named Banneka when she purchased him to help establish a farm located near the future site of Ellicott's Mills, west of Baltimore, Maryland. This part of Maryland was out of the mainstream of the colonial South, and as result had a more tolerant attitude toward African Americans than did colonial areas in which slavery was more prevalent.[1]

A member of the Dogon tribe (reputed to have a historical knowledge of astronomy), Banneka may have cleared Molly's land, solved irrigation problems, and implemented a crop rotation for her. Soon thereafter, Molly freed and married Banneka, who may have shared his knowledge of astronomy with her.[2]

Benjamin's mother, Mary, was the daughter of Molly and Banneka. Although born after Banneka's death, Benjamin may have acquired some of his grandfather's knowledge via Molly, who appears to have taught him how to read, farm, and interpret the sky as Banneka had taught her. Little is known about Benjamin's father Robert, a first-generation slave who had fled his owner.[2]

As a young teenager, Banneker met and befriended Peter Heinrichs, a Quaker farmer who established a school near Banneker's family's farm. Heinrichs shared his personal library with Banneker and provided Banneker's only classroom instruction.[2] (During Banneker's lifetime, Quakers were leaders in the antislavery movement and advocates of racial equality in accordance with their Testimony of Equality belief.)

Once he was old enough to help on his parents' farm, Benjamin's formal education ended. He spent most of the rest of his life at the farm.

pen is

Neighbors, work, and study

After his father died in 1759, Banneker lived with his mother and sisters. Then in 1771, the Ellicotts, a white Quaker family moved into the area and built mills along the Patapsco River. Banneker supplied their workers with food, and studied the mills. In 1788 he began his more formal study of astronomy as an adult, using books and equipment that George Ellicott lent to him. The following year, he sent George his work on the solar eclipse. In February 1791, Major Andrew Ellicott, a member of the same family, hired Banneker to assist in a survey of the boundaries of the 100-square-mile (260 km2) federal district (initially, the Territory of Columbia; later, the District of Columbia) that Maryland and Virginia would cede to the federal government of the United States in accordance with the federal Residence Act of 1790 and later legislation.[3]

Title page of an edition of Banneker's 1792 almanac

Banneker's activities on the survey team resembled those used in celestial navigation during his lifetime. His duties consisted primarily of making astronomical observations at Jones Point in Alexandria, Virginia, to ascertain the location of the starting point for the survey and of maintaining a clock that he used when relating points on the surface of the Earth to the positions of stars at specific times.[4] Because of illness and the difficulties in helping to survey the area at the age of 59, Banneker left the boundary survey in April 1791 and returned to his home at Ellicott's Mills to work on an ephemeris. Andrew Ellicott continued the survey with his brothers Benjamin and Joseph Ellicott and other assistants through 1791 and 1792.[5][6]

At Ellicott's Mills, Banneker made astronomical calculations that predicted solar and lunar eclipses for inclusion in his ephemeris. He placed the ephemeris and its subsequent revisions in a series of almanacs, which were published in Baltimore and Philadelphia from 1792 through 1797. The almanacs' editors prefaced the publications with adulatory references to Banneker and his race, such as this excerpt from a 1796 edition:

"Not you ye proud, impute to these the blame
If Afric's sons to genius are unknown,
For Banneker has prov'd they may acquire a name,
As bright, as lasting, as your own."[7]

Supported by Andrew, George and Elias Ellicott and heavily promoted by the Society for the Promotion of the Abolition of Slavery of Maryland and of Pennsylvania, the early editions of the almanac achieved commercial success and praise by William Wilberforce and other prominent abolitionists in Great Britain's House of Commons.[8] The almanac included the times for the rising and setting of the sun and moon. Weather forecasts and dates for yearly feasts were also included. Readers also saw a tide table for the Chesapeake Bay and home treatments for illnesses. In his 1793 almanac, Banneker included letters sent between Thomas Jefferson and himself. The cover of his 1795 almanac had a woodcut portrait of him as he may have appeared as a young man.[7] He also kept a series of astronomical journals that contained his notebooks for astronomical observations, his diary, and his mathematical calculations.[9]

Views on slavery, racial equality and peace

After departing the federal capital area, Banneker wrote in 1791 to the Secretary of State and author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson, a plea for justice for African Americans, calling on the colonists' personal experience as "slaves" of Great Britain and quoting Jefferson's own words. To support his plea, Banneker included a handwritten manuscript of an almanac for 1792 containing his ephemeris with his astronomical calculations.[10][11] Jefferson replied to Banneker on August 30, 1791, in a series of statements asserting his own interest in the advancement of the equality of America's black population. Jefferson's reply stated that he had sent a copy of the almanac to the secretary of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris.[12][13]. However, the Academy apparently did not receive the almanac.[14] When the 1792 almanac was published, it contained a copy of a plan that Benjamin Rush had authored that called for the creation of a peace office in the federal government.[15][16]

Letter to Thomas Jefferson on racism

On August 19, 1791, Banneker wrote within a letter that he sent to Thomas Jefferson:

"Sir, how pitiable is it to reflect, that although you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of Mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of these rights and privileges, which he hath conferred upon them, that you should at the same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren, under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, that you should at the same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to yourselves."[17]

Thomas Jefferson's opinion of Banneker and his letter

In 1809, three years after Banneker's death, Jefferson wrote:

"The whole do not amount, in point of evidence, to what we know ourselves of Banneker. We know he had spherical trigonometry enough to make almanacs, but not without the suspicion of aid from Ellicot, who was his neighbor and friend, and never missed an opportunity of puffing him. I have a long letter from Banneker, which shows him to have had a mind of very common stature indeed."[18]

Later life, death and burial

Banneker never married. Because of declining sales, his last almanac was published in 1797. After selling much of his farm to the Ellicotts and others, he died in his log cabin nine years later on October 9, 1806, exactly one month before his 75th birthday. His chronic alcoholism, which worsened as he aged, may have contributed to his death.[19] A commemorative obelisk that the Maryland Bicentennial Commission and the State Commission on Afro American History and Culture erected in 1977 stands near his unmarked grave in an Oella, Maryland, churchyard.[20]

Mythology of Benjamin Banneker

A substantial mythology exaggerating Banneker's accomplishments has developed during the two centuries that have elapsed since he lived.[21] One such urban legend describes Banneker's alleged activities after he left the federal district boundary survey.

While Andrew Ellicott and his team were conducting the federal district boundary survey, Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant was preparing a plan for the federal capital city (the City of Washington), which would be located in a relatively small area bounded by the Potomac River, the Anacostia River (known at the time as the "Eastern Branch"), the base of the fall line and Rock Creek at the center of the much larger 100-square-mile (260 km2) federal district. In late February 1792, President George Washington dismissed L'Enfant, who had failed to have his plan published and who was experiencing frequent conflicts with the three Commissioners that Washington had appointed to supervise the planning and survey of the federal district and city.[22]

According to the Banneker legend, L'Enfant took his plans with him after his dismissal, leaving no copies behind. As the story is told, Banneker spent two days reconstructing the bulk of the city's plan from his presumably photographic memory. The plans that Banneker purportedly drew from memory provided the basis for the later construction of the federal capital city. Titles of works relating this story have touted Banneker as "the man who saved Washington" and "An Early American Hero".[23][24]

In one version of the legend, Banneker and Andrew Ellicott both surveyed the area of, and configured the final layout for, the placement of major governmental buildings, boulevards and avenues while reconstructing L'Enfant's plan. According to this version, Banneker either "made astronomical calculations and implementations" that established points of significance in the capital city, including those of the 16th Street Meridian, the White House, the Capitol and the Treasury Building, or "helped in selecting the sites" of those features.[25]

A contemporary reprint of Andrew Ellicott's 1792 "Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia"

However, the legend cannot be correct. Banneker left the federal capital area and returned to Ellicott's Mills in April 1791. At that time, L'Enfant was still developing his plan for the federal city and had not yet been dismissed from his job.[26] L'Enfant presented his plan to President Washington in August 1791, four months after Banneker had left.[27][28]

Further, there was never any need to reconstruct L'Enfant's plan. After largely completing the district boundary survey, Andrew Ellicott began a survey of the federal city in accordance with L'Enfant's plan. During a contentious period in February 1792, Ellicott informed the Commissioners that L'Enfant had refused to give him an original plan that L'Enfant possessed at the time. However, Washington and others, including Ellicott, had in their possession at least one original and copy of various versions of the plan that L'Enfant had also prepared. Andrew Ellicott, with the aid of his brother, Benjamin Ellicott, then revised L'Enfant's plan, despite L'Enfant's protests. Shortly thereafter, Washington dismissed L'Enfant. After L'Enfant departed, Andrew Ellicott continued the city survey in accordance with revisions to the plan that he and his brother had made. There is no historical evidence that shows that Banneker was involved in any of this.[29][30][31]

The U.S. Library of Congress presently owns a copy of a plan for the federal city that bears the adopted name of the plan's author, "Peter Charles L'Enfant".[32] The U.S. National Archives holds a copy of "Ellicott's engraved Plan superimposed on the Plan of L'Enfant showing the changes made in the engraved Plan under the direction of President Washington".[33] As an original version of L'Enfant's plan still exists, President Washington and Ellicott clearly had at least one such version available for their use when L'Enfant departed.

Benjamin Banneker cartoon by Charles Alston, 1943, claiming that Banneker had been a "city planner", "was placed on the commission which surveyed and laid out the city of Washington, D.C.", and had "constructed the first clock made in America".

In 1943, an African American artist, Charles Alston, who was at the time an employee of the United States Office of War Information, embellished the Banneker version of authorship in a cartoon that he designed. The cartoon claimed that Banneker had been a "city planner" and "was placed on the commission which surveyed and laid out the city of Washington, D.C." The cartoon also stated that Banneker "constructed the first clock made in America".[34]

In 1976, the singer-songwriter Stevie Wonder celebrated Banneker's mythological achievements in his song "Black Man", from the album "Songs in the Key of Life". A stanza in the song states:

"Who was the man who helped design the nation's capitol, made the first clock to give time in America and wrote the first almanac? Benjamin Banneker - a black man."[35]

The question's answer is incorrect. Banneker did not help design either the U.S. Capitol or the nation's capital city. The first known clockmaker of record in America was Thomas Nash, an early settler of New Haven in 1638.[36] A known American clock was made in 1680.[37] Wooden clocks were apparently constructed in America in 1715, and were in commercial production there by 1745, eight years before Banneker completed his own clock.[36] "Pierce's (Peirse's) Almanac of 1639 calculated for New England and printed by Stephen Day" preceded Banneker's birth by nearly a century.[38]

A commemorative historical marker that the Maryland Historical Society erected in Catonsville, Maryland, states that Banneker "published the first Maryland almanac" in 1792.[39] In reality, Banneker modeled the format of his almanac after several that Andrew Ellicott had authored from 1781 to 1785, during which time Ellicott had lived in Maryland and had served in the Maryland General Assembly.[40] Ellicott's almanacs were published in Baltimore, Maryland, during those years.[41] Further, Banneker did not "publish" his 1792 almanac. Although he authored this work, others printed, distributed and sold it.[42]

In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Benjamin Banneker on his biographical list of "100 Greatest African Americans".[43] However, a reviewer of this publication stated: "More serious perhaps is the lack of more critical information on the people’s whose biographies are presented." [44]

In 2005, actor James Avery narrated a DVD entitled "A History of Black Achievement in America". A quiz based on a section of the DVD entitled "Emergence of the Black Hero" asked:

"Benjamin Banneker was a member of the planning commission for ____________ .
a. New York City
b. Philadelphia
c. Washington, D.C.
d. Atlanta"[45]

However, no historical evidence shows that Banneker was a member of the planning commission for any of these four cities. The three commissioners that President Washington appointed in 1791 to supervise the planning, design and acquisition of property in the area that would become Washington, D.C., were Thomas Johnson, Daniel Carroll and David Stuart.[46]

In 2008, when the Newseum opened to the public on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., visitors looking over the Avenue could read a historical marker that stated:

“Benjamin Banneker assisted Chief Surveyor Andrew Ellicott in laying out the Avenue based on Pierre L’Enfant’s Plan. President George Washington appointed Ellicott and Banneker to survey the boundaries of the new city.”[47]

Little of this appears to be correct. Banneker had no involvement with the laying out of Pennsylvania Avenue or with L’Enfant’s Plan. President Washington appointed Ellicott to survey the boundaries of the federal district (not the “boundaries of the new city”), but it was Ellicott who appointed Banneker to assist in the boundary survey.

Also in 2008, the District of Columbia government considered selecting an image of Banneker to represent the District on the side of a 2009 commemorative United States quarter dollar coin. The narrative supporting this selection alleged that Banneker was "among the first ever African-American presidential appointees" and that Banneker was "a founder of Washington, D.C."[48] After the District chose to commemorate another person on the coin, the District's mayor, Adrian M. Fenty, sent a letter to the Director of the United States Mint that claimed that Banneker was "a scientific genius who played an integral role in the physical design of the nation's capital."[49] However, no president ever appointed Banneker to any position. Further, Banneker played no role at all in the design, development or founding of the nation's capital beyond his two-month participation in the two-year survey of the federal district's boundaries. Additionally, the Mayor's opinion of Banneker's intellect appears to have exceeded the one that Thomas Jefferson had expressed nearly two centuries earlier.[18]

Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland

A park commemorating Benjamin Banneker is located at the former site of Banneker's farm

Benjamin Banneker Park and Memorial, Washington, D.C.

A small urban park memorializing Benjamin Banneker is located at a prominent overlook at the south end of L'Enfant Promenade in southwest Washington, D.C., a half mile (800 m) south of the Smithsonian Institution's "Castle" on the National Mall.[50] The National Park Service administers the park and has erected a historical marker there. The Government of the District of Columbia owns the park's site, which is inside of a traffic circle (Benjamin Banneker Circle). The park, which was constructed in 1970, is now stop number 8 on Washington's Southwest Heritage Trail.[51] In 2004, the D.C. Preservation League listed the park as one of the most endangered places in the District of Columbia.[52]

The Washington Interdependence Council is planning to construct a monumental memorial to Banneker at or near the site of the park.[53] On November 8, 2006, the Council held a charrette to select the artist that would design the memorial.[54]

Benjamin Banneker postage stamp

On February 15, 1980, the United States Postal Service issued a 15 cent stamp that illustrated a portrait of Banneker. An image of Banneker standing behind a short telescope mounted on a tripod is superimposed upon the portrait.[55][56] The stamp is part of the Postal Service's Black Heritage stamp series.[57]

Notes

  1. ^ Toscano
  2. ^ a b c Corrigan
  3. ^ Bedini 1999, p. 113
  4. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 118-121
  5. ^ Boundary markers of the Nation's Capital: a proposal for their preservation & protection : a National Capital Planning Commission Bicentennial report. National Capital Planning Commission, Washington, DC, 1976; for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
  6. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 132-136
  7. ^ a b Benjamin Banneker's Almanac, 1795 in official website of Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Accessed December 19, 2008.
  8. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 185-190
  9. ^ Fasanelli, Florence; Jagger, Graham; Lumpkin, Bea, Benjamin Banneker's Trigonometry Puzzle and Mahony, John F., Benjamin Banneker's Inscribed Equilateral Triangle in Convergence in Math DL, The Mathematical Sciences Digital Library in MAA Online: official website of The Mathematical Association of America Accessed August 11, 2008.
  10. ^ COPY OF A LETTER FROM BENJAMIN BANNEKER, &c. Maryland, Baltimore County, August 19, 1791, in "Copy of a letter from Benjamin Banneker to the secretary of state, with his answer. Printed and sold by Daniel Lawrence, no. 33. North Fourth-Street, near Race. Philadelphia M.DCC.XCII. (1792)" in official website of University of Virginia Library Accessed February 2, 2009.
  11. ^ Bedini 1999, p. 163
  12. ^ To Mr. BENJAMIN BANNEKER. Philadelphia, August 30, 1791, in "Copy of a letter from Benjamin Banneker to the secretary of state, with his answer. Printed and sold by Daniel Lawrence, no. 33. North Fourth-Street, near Race. Philadelphia M.DCC.XCII. (1792)" in official website of University of Virginia Library Accessed February 2, 2009.
  13. ^ "Jefferson's response to Banneker" in "Banneker's letter to and from Jefferson" in Mathematicians of the African Diaspora, by Dr. Scott W. Williams in official website of the Mathematics Department of the College of Arts and Sciences of the University at Buffalo of the State University of New York Accessed January 12, 2009.
  14. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 163, 168
  15. ^ Benjamin Banneker's biography
  16. ^ Bedini 1999, p.190
  17. ^ Image of page 8 in COPY OF A LETTER FROM BENJAMIN BANNEKER, &c. Maryland, Baltimore County, August 19, 1791, in "Copy of a letter from Benjamin Banneker to the secretary of state, with his answer. Printed and sold by Daniel Lawrence, no. 33. North Fourth-Street, near Race. Philadelphia M.DCC.XCII. (1792)" in official website of University of Virginia Library Accessed February 2, 2009.
  18. ^ a b Excerpt from 1809 letter from Thomas Jefferson to Joel Barlow in Bob Arnebeck's Web Pages. Accessed January 12, 2009.
  19. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 253-254
  20. ^ Benjamin Banneker marker in official website of hmdb.org: The Historical Marker Database. Accessed August 27, 2008. Coordinates of Benjamim Banneker obelisk: 39°16′30″N 76°46′44″W / 39.2749641°N 76.778807°W / 39.2749641; -76.778807 (Benjamin Banneker obelisk)
  21. ^ Murdock
  22. ^ Plan of the City of Washington in Washington Map Society official website. Accessed May 2, 2008; Bowling
  23. ^ Claude Lewis, Benjamin Banneker: the man who saved Washington, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1970. (author, title, publisher and date from website of U.S. Library of Congress)
  24. ^ An Early American Hero in website of SuccessMaker Enterprise by Pearson Education, Inc. Accessed January 9, 2009.
  25. ^ The ninth and tenth paragraphs of the "His Story" page in official website of the Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial (Accessed August 6, 2008), the fourth paragraph in the webpage entitled "Benjamin Banneker" in official website of Benjamin Banneker Academic High School, 800 Euclid Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20001 (Accessed August 21, 2008), the fourth paragraph in the section entitled "BENJAMIN BANNEKER (1731-1806)" in "Benjamin Banneker" page in "ChickenBones: A Journal for Literary & Artistic African-American Themes" website (Accessed August 6, 2008), the third paragraph in the webpage entitled Benjamin Banneker: A Brief Biography by K. Newbold in official website of the James Madison Center, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia (Accessed October 23, 2008), the first paragraph in the webpage entitled "Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)" in official website of the Brookhaven National Laboratory (Accessed August 8, 2008), the fifth and sixth paragraphs in the webpage entitled "Benjamin Banneker in website of "The Black Inventor Online Museum" by Adscape International, LLC (Accessed February 2, 2009), An Early American Hero: Benjamin Banneker in website of SuccessMaker Enterprise by Pearson Education, Inc. (Accessed January 9, 2009) and the book by Claude Lewis entitled Benjamin Banneker: the man who saved Washington, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1970, relate part or all of this urban legend.
  26. ^ Bedini 1999, p. 136; Arnebeck
  27. ^ Stewart, John (1899). "Early Maps and Surveyors of the City of Washington, D.C". Records of the Columbia Historical Society. 2: p. 52. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  28. ^ Bedini 1999, p. 136
  29. ^ Bowling
  30. ^ Ellicott's letter to the commissioners on engraving the plan of the city, in which no reference is made to Banneker in Bob Arnebeck's Web Pages. Accessed January 9, 2009.
  31. ^ Elizabeth S. Kite, "L'Enfant and Washington 1791-1792". New York, Arno Press & The New York Times: 1970, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1929, from "L'Enfant and Washington"’’ ‘’in’’ website of Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, Ancient Free and Accepted Masons (Freemasons) Retrieved January 11, 2009.
  32. ^ Library of Congress' copy of L'Enfant's Plan in official website of the U.S. Library of Congress. Accessed August 6, 2008. The Library's web page describing the plan states: "Selected by Washington to prepare a ground plan for the new city, L'Enfant arrived in Georgetown on March 9, 1791, and submitted his report and plan to the president about August 26, 1791. It is believed that this plan is the one that is preserved in the Library of Congress. After showing L'Enfant's manuscript to Congress, the president retained custody of the original drawing until December 1796, when he transferred it to the City Commissioners of Washington, D.C. One hundred and twenty-two years later, on November 11, 1918, the map was presented to the Library of Congress for safekeeping." A copy of the oval in L'Enfant's plan that identifies the plan's author as "Peter Charles L'Enfant" is inscribed several yards west of an inlay of the plan in Freedom Plaza on Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, in downtown Washington, D.C. The coordinates of the inscription are: 38°53′45″N 77°01′53″W / 38.895845°N 77.031286°W / 38.895845; -77.031286 (Inscription of name of "Peter Charles L'Enfant" in inlay of L'Enfant's plan in Freedom Plaza)
  33. ^ In "Scope & Contents" page of "Archival Description" for National Archives holding of "Miscellaneous Oversize Prints, Drawings and Posters of Projects Associated with the Commission of Fine Arts, compiled 1893 - 1950", ARC Identifier 518229/Local Identifier 66-M; Series from Record Group 66: Records of the Commission of Fine Arts, 1893 - 1981. Record of holding available from the Archival Research Catalog (ARC) of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 518229. Accessed February 3, 2009.
  34. ^ 1943 Cartoon by Charles Alston: "BENJAMIN BANNEKER - ASTRONOMER-CITY PLANNER". Image available from the Archival Research Catalog (ARC) of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 535626. Accessed February 3, 2009.
  35. ^ "Black Man" lyrics in website of www.sing.com Accessed August 7, 2008.
  36. ^ a b Paul Uselding, "U.S. History Encyclopedia: Clock and Watch History" in website of answers.com by Answers Corporation Accessed January 26, 2009.
  37. ^ "Clockmakers" in Historical Reference on Vintage & Antique Clocks in website of Antique-antiques Accessed August 7, 2008.
  38. ^ Description of Pierce's Almanac of 1639 in Bancroft, G., History of the United States, Boston, C. Bowen, 1837-, cited in biography of Captain William Pierce in website of Pierces.org Accessed August 7, 2008; Stowell, MB, Early American Almanacs; the Colonial Weekday Bible, Burt Franklin, New York; Published by Ayer Publishing, 1977, p. 37. ISBN 0891020632 Accessed September 2, 2008.
  39. ^ Banjamin Banneker marker in official website of hmdb.org: Historical Marker Database. Accessed December 18, 2008.
  40. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 97, 109, 210
  41. ^ Bedini 1999, pp. 97, 210
  42. ^ Title page of Banneker's 1792 almanac in official website of U.S. Library of Congress Accessed February 5, 2009.
  43. ^ Asante, MF, "100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia." Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. 2002 ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
  44. ^ Cline, A, Book review of Asante, MF, "100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia", 2002, in Website of about.com, a part of The New York Times Company Accessed January 5, 2009.
  45. ^ Question 4 in test entitled "Black Achievement in American History: Blackline Master 2A Quiz: Program Two: Emergence of the Black Hero" based on DVD presented by James Avery entitled "A History of Black Achievement in America", Release Date: April 2005 (DVD No. 1, Program Two: "Emergence of the Black Hero") in website of Ambrose Video Publishing, Inc. Accessed January 30, 2009.
  46. ^ Hazelton, George C. (1903). The National Capitol: its architecture, art, and history. J.F. Taylor. p. 2.
  47. ^ Text of historic marker entitled “1800-1860 – Benjamin Banneker” on outdoor overlook of Pennsylvania Avenue on Level 6 of Newseum, 555 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, D.C., April 11, 2008.
  48. ^ "District of Columbia Quarter Dollar Coin Design Narratives" (PDF). Government of the District of Columbia. 2008-02-25.
  49. ^ Letter from Mayor Adrian M. Fenty to Edmund C. Moy, Director, United States Mint, June 19, 2008, regarding the District's selection of Edward Kennedy ("Duke") Ellington for the reverse side of the U.S. Quarter Dollar coin for the District of Columbia in news release from the Office of the Secretary of the District of Columbia entitled "DC Announces Results of Online Quarter Vote" Accessed August 8, 2008.
  50. ^ Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.: 38°52′54″N 77°01′34″W / 38.8817128°N 77.0259833°W / 38.8817128; -77.0259833 (Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.)
  51. ^ Brochure: Southwest Heritage Trail in official website of Cultural Tourism DC, 1250 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005 Accessed August 6, 2008.
  52. ^ "BENJAMIN BANNEKER PARK, BANNEKER CIRCLE" in official website of DC Preservation League Accessed August 6, 2008.
  53. ^ "The Memorial" page in official website of the Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial Accessed August 6, 2008.
  54. ^ COMCAST NEWS MAKERS video of Washington Interdependence Council's November 8, 2006, charrette for Benjamin Banneker Memorial in official website of the Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial Accessed August 6, 2008.
  55. ^ Banneker postage stamp with enlargeable image in website of Encyclopædia Britannica Student Edition. Accessed January 26, 2009.
  56. ^ First day of issue cover with three Banneker postage stamps bearing February 15, 1980, cancellations from post offices in Washington, DC, Ellicott City, MD and Annapolis MD in website of Virtual Museum of Surveying, sponsored by Ingram - Hagen & Co., PLC Accessed October 24, 2008.
  57. ^ Historian, United States Postal Service,"AFRICAN-AMERICAN SUBJECTS ON UNITED STATES POSTAGE STAMPS", January 2005 in official website of U.S. Postal Service Accessed October 24, 2008.

References

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