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{{Infobox Military Conflict |
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|conflict=Battle of Queenston Heights |
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|partof=the [[War of 1812]] |
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|image=[[Image:Push on, brave York volunteers.jpg|300px]] |
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|caption=''' ''"Push on, brave York Volunteers!"'' ''' A mortally wounded Brock urges the Canadian militia forward. Apocryphal reconstruction, oil on canvas. |
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|date=[[October 13]], [[1812]] |
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|place=[[Queenston, Ontario|Queenston]], [[Ontario]] |
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|result=Decisive British Victory |
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|combatant1={{Flagicon|UK}}[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] <br> {{Flagicon|UK}}[[Canada]] |
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|combatant2=[[Image:US flag 15 stars.svg|22px|border]][[United States]] |
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|commander1=[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|22px|border]] [[Isaac Brock]] †<br>[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|22px|border]][[Roger Sheaffe]] |
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|commander2=[[Image:US flag 15 stars.svg|22px]][[Stephen Van Rensselaer III|Stephen Van Rensselaer]] |
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|strength1=1,300 |
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|strength2=6,000 |
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|casualties1=14 dead,<br>77 wounded <br> '''Total:''' 91 |
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|casualties2=100 dead,<br>300 wounded,<br>925 captured <br> '''Total:''' 1,325 |
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}} |
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{{Campaignbox War of 1812: Niagara frontier}} |
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The '''Battle of Queenston Heights''' was a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] victory during the [[War of 1812]] which took place on [[October 13]], [[1812]], near [[Queenston, Ontario]]. It was fought between New York militia forces led by [[Stephen Van Rensselaer III|Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer]], and British forces led by [[Isaac Brock|Major General Sir Isaac Brock]] and [[Roger Sheaffe|Major General Sir Roger Hale Sheaffe]]. The battle, the largest in the war to that point, was fought as the result of an American attempt to establish a foothold on the Canadian side of the [[Niagara River]] before campaigning ended with the onset of winter. This decisive battle was the result of a poorly managed campaign, and is most historically significant for the fact that in it, the British lost their commander, General Brock, who was killed by an unknown shooter. |
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Despite their theoretical numerical advantage and the wide dispersal of British forces against an invasion attempt, the Americans, who were stationed in [[Lewiston, New York]], were unable to get the bulk of their invasion force across the Niagara River due to the work of British artillery and reluctance on the part of the undertrained and inexperienced American militia. As a result, British reinforcements were able to arrive and force those Americans on the Canadian side to surrender. |
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==Background== |
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The United States invasion across the Niagara River was originally intended to be part of a three-pronged attack on [[Upper Canada]]'s border strongpoints. General [[William Hull]] would attack [[Amherstburg, Ontario|Amherstburg]] through [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], General [[Henry Dearborn]] would cross the [[St. Lawrence River]] to take [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]], and General Van Rensselaer would attack Queenston. The attacks, coupled with a fourth assault on [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] in [[Lower Canada]], would theoretically bring the colony to its knees and ensure a quick peace. |
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However, the three attacks on Upper Canada were not effective. Hull was besieged in Detroit and, faced with the threat of a massacre by Britain's [[First Nations|Native American]] allies, surrendered the city and his entire army at the [[Battle of Detroit]]. Dearborn and his army were remaining, relatively inactive, at [[Albany, New York|Albany]], and seemed to be in no hurry to attempt an invasion. (Dearborn would be replaced in [[1813]] with only minor successes to his credit). Van Rensselaer, meanwhile, was under considerable pressure to attempt his part of the invasion, both from his own men eager for battle and from an American public chafing under the disgrace of Hull's surrender. |
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Although he held the rank of Major General in the New York state militia, Van Rensselaer had never commanded troops in battle, and was in fact considered the leading [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] candidate for the [[Governor of New York|governorship of New York]]. Possibly hoping to get Van Rensselaer out of the way, New York governor [[Daniel Tompkins]] put Van Rensselaer's name forward to command the American army, and he officially took command [[July 13]], [[1812]]. Stephen Van Rensselaer did secure the appointment of experienced soldier Colonel [[Solomon Van Rensselaer]] (the General's second cousin) as his [[aide-de-camp]], giving the General a valuable source of experienced advice. |
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===American internal quarrels=== |
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Even with Hull's failure and Dearborn's inaction, Van Rensselaer's position appeared strong. While on [[September 1]] he had only 691 unpaid men fit for duty, the arrival of reinforcements soon boosted his force considerably. In addition to his own force of around six thousand regulars, volunteers, and militia, Van Rensselaer had Brigadier General [[Alexander Smyth]]'s force of 1,700 regular soldiers under his command. However, Smyth, a regular officer himself, steadfastly refused to obey Van Rensselaer's orders or respond to his summons. As soon as his force reached the frontier, Smyth took it upon himself to deploy his force near [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]]. |
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Van Rensselaer laid a plan for the main force to cross the Niagara and take the heights near Queenston while Smyth attacked [[Fort George]] from the rear. However, Smyth made no reply to Van Rensselaer's plan. When summoned to a council of officers to plan the attack, Smyth did not respond, nor did he reply to a letter sent soon after. A direct order to arrive "with all possible dispatch" was also met with silence. Van Rensselaer, an amiable politician in a hurry to launch his attack, simply chose to proceed without Smyth rather than [[court-martial]] him and possibly delay the start of the battle. |
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On [[October 10]], Van Rensselaer sent orders to Smyth to march his brigade to Lewiston in preparation for the attack "with every possible dispatch."<!--Malcomson 118--> The attack had been planned for Sunday, [[October 11]] at 3 a.m., and Smyth set out upon receipt of the letter; however, he chose a bad route to Lewiston, in foul weather, on a road so bad that abandoned wagons could be seen "sticking in the road."<!--Malcomson 120--> At 10 a.m. on [[October 11]], orders reached Smyth that the attack had been postponed. Smyth then turned back to his camp at [[Black Rock, New York|Black Rock]] rather than press on to Lewiston, expressing in a letter to Van Rensselaer written on [[October 12]] that his troops would be in condition to move out again on [[October 14]], a day after the postponed attack was to be launched. |
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The [[October 11]] attack was delayed because of a defection in Van Rensselaer's army. Over the previous few days, Colonel Van Rensselaer had been able to cross over to the British side under the escort of Brock's aide Lieutenant-Colonel [[John Macdonell]], and as such had a fairly good idea of the lay of the land. Although Colonel Van Rensselaer was stricken down with fever, General Van Rensselaer resolved to launch the attack on [[October 11]]. However, with the American army formed up to cross in the early morning, one of the lead boatmen, a Lieutenant Sims rowed his boat away and abandoned the army, taking with him most of the oars that were to be used for the crossing. By the time the oars could be replaced, the attack had to be set back. General Van Rensselaer set the second attempt for October 13 <!--Van Rensselaer 21-22--> |
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===British preparation=== |
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Isaac Brock was the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada and commander of the forces there. He was an aggressive commander, and his successful capture of Detroit had won him praise, the reputation as the "saviour of Upper Canada", and a knighthood which would only reach Upper Canada after his death. However, his superior at [[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec]], Sir [[George Prevost]], was of a more cautious bent, and the two clashed over strategy. |
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It was Brock's intention to attack the United States again, crossing the Niagara, defeating Van Rensselaer and Smyth before they could be reinforced, and occupying upper [[New York State]] for the British. Prevost vetoed this plan, ordering Brock to behave more defensively. (Prevost was aware that the British Government had revoked several [[Order in Council|Orders in Council]] which affected American merchant ships, and thus removed some of the stated causes of the war. He may have believed that peace negotiations might result, and would not wish to prejudice any talks by taking offensive action.) Brock's one aggressive action was to facilitate the [[Siege of Fort Wayne|siege of]] [[Forts of Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] on the [[Maumee River]], which ended in a defeat of the Native attackers. |
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Particularly galling to Brock was an [[armistice]] concluded by Major General Roger Sheaffe, under Prevost's orders, with Colonel Van Rensselaer on [[August 20]]. The terms of the armistice permitted the use of the river by both powers as a common waterway, and Brock could only watch as American reinforcements and supplies were moved to Van Rensselaer's army without being able to take action. The armistice ended on [[September 8]], by which time Van Rensselaer's army was considerably better supplied than it had been before. |
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On [[October 12]], the day before the battle, by Brock's orders, Major Thomas Evans crossed the Niagara River under a flag of truce to request an immediate exchange of prisoners taken in a successful American raid on two British ships near [[Fort Erie, Ontario|Fort Erie]] a few days before. Evans attempted to see Solomon Van Rensselaer, but was told that the Colonel was ill. Evans was met by a man who claimed to be General Stephen Van Rensselaer's secretary, Toock. Toock was probably Major John Lovett in disguise and repeatedly stated that no exchange could be arranged until "the day after tomorrow". Evans was struck by the repetition of this phrase and was able to spot several boats hidden by the shore under some brush. Evans deduced that an invasion was planned for [[October 13]], and upon returning to the British lines he was met with laughter and mockery from a council of officers. However, Brock took Evans aside and after a meeting was convinced of the possibility. |
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==Battle== |
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===First American landing=== |
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[[Image:Battle of Queenston Heights.jpg|thumb|450px|''The Battle of Queenston Heights'' by [[James B. Dennis]] depicts the unsuccessful American landing on [[October 13]], [[1812]].]] |
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On [[October 13]], Brock was at [[Fort George, Ontario|Fort George]] with Sheaffe and his main force. There were other British detachments at Queenston, Chippawa, and Fort Erie. |
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The village of Queenston lay at the mouth of the gorge of the River Niagara, which was fast-flowing and 200 yards wide. Immediately south of the village, the ground rose 300 feet (100 m) to Queenston Heights. Lewiston was on the other side of the river, with the ground to its south rising to Lewiston Heights. In time of peace, there was a regular boat service between Queenston and Lewiston. |
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The British detachment at Queenston consisted of the grenadier company of the [[The Royal Berkshire Regiment (Princess Charlotte of Wales's)|49th Regiment of Foot]] (formerly Brock's own) under Captain James Dennis, the light company of the 49th under Captain John Williams, a flank company of the 2nd York Militia (the "York Volunteers") and a detachment of the [[Welch Regiment|41st Foot]] with a 3-pounder [[Grasshopper cannon]]. An 18-pounder gun was mounted in a [[redan]] halfway up the Heights, and a 24-pounder gun and a carronade were sited in a barbette at [[Vrooman's Point]], a mile north of the village. The local militia, companies from the 5th Lincoln Regiment, were not on duty but could assemble at very short notice. |
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The American forces involved were the 6th, 13th and 23rd U.S. Infantry, with detachments of U.S. Artillery serving as infantry. There were also five regiments of New York Militia and a volunteer battalion of riflemen. Because the United States Army was being rapidly expanded, most of the regulars at Lewiston were recent recruits, and Van Rensselaer considered the Militiamens' drill and discipline was superior to that of the regulars. The Americans had twelve boats, each of which could carry thirty men, and two large boats which could carry eighty men and which were fitted with platforms on which field guns or wagons could be carried. |
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A last-minute squabble over seniority and precedence led to the command of the first landing party being split. Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer led the militia contingent, Lieutenant Colonel [[John Chrystie]] led the regulars. |
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The Americans began crossing the river at 3 a.m. on [[October 13]]. Ten minutes after they began crossing, ten boats under Colonel Solomon van Rensselaer began landing at the village. A sentry noticed them and, rather than fire his musket to raise the alarm and thus warn the American troops that they had been spotted, ran to Dennis's headquarters. A few minutes later, Dennis's troops fired a volley into the Americans as they were still coming ashore. Colonel Van Rensselaer was hit by a musketball as soon as he stepped out of his boat on the Canadian shore. As he tried to form up his troops, he was promptly hit five more times, and—though he survived—he spent most of the battle out of action, weak from loss of blood. Captain [[John E. Wool]] of the [[13th Infantry Regiment (United States)|13th U.S. Infantry]] took over and fought to retain the American foothold in Queenston. |
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Meanwhile, the British guns opened fire in the direction of the American landing stage at Lewiston, and the American guns (two 18-pounders in an earthwork named "Fort Grey" on Lewiston Heights, and two 6-pounder field guns near the landing stage) opened fire on Queenston village. Dennis's troops were driven back into the village but kept firing from the shelter of the houses. |
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As the light grew, the British guns became more accurate. Calamity for the Americans ensued as the crews of three of their boats, including their two largest—one of which was carrying Lieutenant-Colonel Chrystie—panicked as they came under fire. Chrystie's pilot turned the boat back for shore, despite the efforts of Chrystie to restrain him. This later caused controversy when Captain Lawrence, commanding the next boat following, asserted that Chrystie had ordered him to retreat, leading to accusations of cowardice. <!--Van Rensselaer 28--> |
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Much of the second assault wave, led by Lieutenant-Colonel [[John Fenwick (soldier)|John Fenwick]], was either shot out of the water by the British [[cannon]] or drifted downstream and was forced to land in a hollow where British troops quickly surrounded them and forced the survivors to surrender. |
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===Death of Isaac Brock=== |
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At Fort George, Brock had been awoken by the noise of the artillery at Queenston. As he considered this might only have been a diversion, he ordered only a few detachments to move to Queenston but galloped there himself, accompanied by only a few aides. He passed through the village as dawn broke and moved up to the redan to gain a better view. |
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Meanwhile, American Captain Wool, seeing that the British cannon in the redan was causing great carnage amongst the American boats but that it had very few troops guarding it, suggested to Colonel Van Rensselaer that an attack be made using a fisherman's path that Wool had heard about from locals in the area. Van Rensselaer, about to be evacuated because of his wounds, assented, and Wool successfully moved along the river bank and then up to the summit of the heights. They attacked just as Brock arrived. Brock's small party and the artillerymen were forced to flee into the village, managing only to quickly spike the gun. Brock sent a message to Major General Sheaffe at Fort George, ordering him to bring as many troops as possible to Queenston. He then resolved to recapture the redan immediately rather than wait for reinforcements. |
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[[Image:Brock1812.jpg|thumb|270px|left|General [[Isaac Brock]] leading the charge.]] |
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Brock's first charge was made by Dennis' and Williams' two companies of the 49th and two companies of militia. They nearly managed to dislodge Captain Wool and his men, but a swift counter-strike pushed Brock back again. Brock, having been wounded in the hand during the first charge, ordered his aide to "Push on the York Volunteers". He then led a second assault on Wool. His bright red coat with its gold lace and epaulettes (and a gaudy scarf given him by [[Tecumseh]]) and his tall figure and energetic gestures made him a conspicuous target, and he was killed by a US sharpshooter. Brock's aide, Lieutenant-Colonel Macdonell, led another charge despite being a lawyer by trade with little military experience. Wool had been reinforced with more troops which had just made their way up the path to the top of the Heights, and Macdonell was now outnumbered. His attack failed, and he was mortally wounded, Captain Williams was badly injured, and Dennis was slightly injured. Carrying the bodies of Brock and Macdonell, the British fell back through Queenston to Durham's Farm a mile north. |
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According to legend, Brock's last words were "Push on, brave York Volunteers", but this is very unlikely, since Brock was not with them when he fell. According to historian J. Mackay Hitsman, Brock's earlier command to push on the York Volunteers, who had just arrived from Queenston, was transformed into the later legend.<!--Hitsman, p. 96--> |
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===Sheaffe's attack=== |
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By 10 a.m., the Americans were opposed only by the 24-pounder at Vrooman's Point which was firing at the American boats at very long range. The Americans were able to push several hundred fresh troops and a 6-pounder field gun across the river. They unspiked the 18-pounder in the Redan and used it to fire into Queenston village, but it had a limited field of fire away from the river. Colonel Chrystie briefly took charge of the troops on the Canadian side but returned to collect reinforcements and entrenching tools. At noon, General van Rensselaer crossed. He and Chrystie ordered the position on Queenston Heights to be fortified before they returned to the American side of the river. |
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Colonel [[Winfield Scott]] (who later became one of the most highly regarded generals in American history) now took command of the regulars on Queenston Heights, and Brigadier General [[William Wadsworth]], who waived his right to overall command, took charge of the militia. There were few complete formed units; there was only a collection of unorganised detachments, some without their officers. Likewise some officers had crossed but their men had not followed them. Little more than a thousand of General Van Rensselaer's men had crossed the Niagara River, and the militia, which knew nothing of the death of Brock or the silencing of most of the large British cannon, refused to cross in the few boats that remained. |
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Meanwhile, British reinforcements had begun to arrive from Fort George. A detachment of the [[Royal Artillery]] under Captain Holcroft with two 6-pounder guns moved into Queenston village, supported by a company of the 41st under Captain Derenzy. Militia Captain Archibald Hamilton guided them to a firing position in the courtyard of his own house. When they opened fire at 1 p.m., it once again became hazardous for the American boats to attempt to cross the river. |
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At the same time, [[Mohawk nation|Mohawks]] under Captains [[John Norton (Mohawk chief)|John Norton]] and [[John Brant (Mohawk chief)|John Brant]] climbed up to the top of the heights and suddenly fell on Scott's outposts. None were killed, and the Mohawks were driven back into some woods, but the Americans' spirits were badly affected by their fear of the natives. Warcries could be clearly heard in Lewiston. General Van Rensselaer was unable to cajole any more of the militia into crossing the river. He then tried to induce the civilian boatmen to cross the river and retrieve his soldiers from Canada, but they refused even that. The General reported the next day that, "...to my utter astonishment, I found that at the very moment when complete victory was in our hands, the ardor of the unengaged troops had entirely subsided. I rode in all directions -- urged men by every consideration to pass over -- but in vain." |
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Major General [[Roger Hale Sheaffe]] arrived at Queenston at 2 p.m. and took charge of the British troops. He ordered yet more reinforcements to join him, and when they had done so, he led his force on a three mile (5 km) detour to the Heights, shielding them from the American artillery. Here, he was joined by another column of reinforcements from Chippawa. In all, he commanded over 800 men. In addition to the remnants of the force which had been engaged under Brock in the morning, he had five companies of the 41st and seven of Militia (including [[Canadian Units of the War of 1812#The Provincial Corps of Artificers|Runchey's Company of Coloured Men]]), with two 3-pounder guns. |
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Sheaffe took his time forming his men up and preparing them for battle and attacked at 4 p.m., thirteen hours after Van Rensselaer launched his assault. The American militia, hearing war-cries from the Mohawks and believing themselves doomed, retreated ''en masse'' and without orders, leaving Colonel Scott with only three hundred defenders to resist the British force. Scott tried to cover the American withdrawal against Sheaffe's larger force, but with no boats arriving to evacuate his men and with the Mohawks furious over the deaths of two chiefs, he feared a massacre and surrendered to the British. Even so, excited Indians continued to fire from the heights into the crowd of Americans on the river bank below for several minutes. Once the surrender was made, Scott was shocked to see five hundred U.S. militiamen, who had been hiding around the heights, coming out and surrendering as well. |
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==Aftermath== |
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Of General Ham AndCheese's 6,000 troops, about 100 were killed and 300 wounded and another 925 taken prisoner, including Brigadier General Wadsworth, Colonel Scott, four other lieutenant-colonels and sixty-seven other officers. The British also captured a 6-pounder gun and the colours of a New York Militia regiment. The British suffered fourteen men killed, with seventy-seven wounded including James Secord, husband of [[Laura Secord]]. |
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General Van Rensselaer, his attack a dismal failure, resigned immediately after the battle and was succeeded as senior officer on the Niagara by Alexander Smyth, the officer whose insolence had badly injured the invasion attempt. Smyth still had his regulars at Buffalo but refused to launch an attack until he had three thousand men under his command. He then bungled two attempts to cross the river near Fort Erie and drew the loathing of his soldiers. Universally castigated for his refusal to attack and with rumours of mutiny in the air, Smyth slipped away to his home in [[Virginia]] rather than remain at his post. |
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At Albany, the defeat of Van Rensselaer only increased Henry Dearborn's reluctance to act. With two armies already defeated, Dearborn was not keen on leading the third. He led a half-hearted advance as far as [[Odelltown, Quebec|Odelltown]], where his militia refused to proceed further, and then he retired. As a result, Van Rensselaer's army was the only one to launch a significant assault on Upper Canada in 1812. |
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The question of who to blame for the defeat was one that was never resolved. Stephen Van Rensselaer's popularity remained high enough that he was able to launch an (unsuccessful) attempt to unseat Daniel Tompkins as Governor of New York, and he later went on to serve in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. General [[John Armstrong, Jr.]], the [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] for much of the war, pinned the blame on General Van Rensselaer in his ''Notices of the War of 1812''. This provoked an indignant response from Solomon Van Rensselaer, who compared Armstrong to [[Benedict Arnold]] <!--Van Rensselaer iv--> and laid the blame squarely on Lieutenant-Colonel Chrystie, who he accused of cowardice and said "to his failure may mainly be attributed all our disasters." <!--Van Rensselaer 28--> |
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The loss of General Brock was nevertheless a major blow to the British. Brock had inspired his own troops and the militia and civilians by his confidence and activity. Sheaffe, his successor, received a baronetcy for his part in the victory but could not command the same respect. Although his retreat the next year from a numerically superior force at the [[Battle of York]] was militarily correct, it left the local militia, the Assembly and the population of York feeling abandoned and aggrieved. He was relieved of his appointments in Upper Canada. |
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==References== |
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*{{cite book|author=[[Pierre Berton|Berton, Pierre]]|title=The Invasion of Canada, 1812-1813| location=Toronto | publisher=McClelland & Stewart|year=1980|id=ISBN 0-7710-1235-7}} |
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*{{cite book|author=J. Mackay Hitsman|Hitsman, J. Mackay (Donald E. Graves ed.)|title=The Incredible War of 1812| location=Toronto | publisher=Robin Brass Studio|year=1999|id=ISBN 1-896941-13-3}} |
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* Jon Latimer, ''1812: War with America'', Harvard University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-67402-584-9 |
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*{{cite book|author=Robert Malcomson|Malcomson, Robert|title=A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812| location=Toronto | publisher=Robin Brass Studio|year=2003|id=ISBN 1-896941-33-8}} |
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*{{cite book|author=[[Solomon Van Rensselaer|Van Rensselaer, Solomon]]|title=A Narrative of the Affair of Queenstown in the War of 1812| location=New York | publisher=Leavitt, Lord & Co|year=1836|id=ISBN 0-665-21524-X}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Morris Zaslow|Zaslow, Morris (ed)|title=The Defended Border| location=Toronto | publisher=Macmillan of Canada|year=1964|id=ISBN 0-7705-1242-9}} |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.historiclewiston.org/vanrensselaer.html Van Rensselaer's explanation to Gen. Dearborn as to why the Americans lost the Battle of Queenston] |
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*[http://www.warof1812.ca/queenstn.htm An Historic Account of the Battle of Queenston Heights] |
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*[http://www.generalbrock.com/level2/queenston.htm Battle summary, map, photos of area] |
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*[http://www.historiclewiston.org/downloads/spring_summer_2006_placemat.pdf Downloadable summary of Battle from Historic Lewiston, NY] |
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* [http://www.nfpl.library.on.ca/nfplindex/results.asp?action=browse&q=79&key=2263 Art works in the collection of the Niagara Falls Public Library] |
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[[Category:Conflicts in 1812]] |
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[[Category:Battles of the War of 1812|Queenston Heights]] |
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[[cs:Bitva na Queenston Heights]] |
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[[de:Schlacht von Queenston Heights]] |
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[[es:Batalla de Queenston Heights]] |
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[[fr:Bataille de Queenston Heights]] |
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[[ja:クィーンストン・ハイツの戦い]] |
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[[pl:Bitwa pod Queenston Heights]] |
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