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The barleycorn was known as ''arpa'' in Turkish, and the feudal system in Turkey employed the term Arpalik, or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.<ref>{{cite book|last=Houtsma M Th|coauthors=Arnold TW, Wensinck AJ|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936|publisher=Brill|date=1993|pages=460|isbn=9004097961}}</ref>
The barleycorn was known as ''arpa'' in Turkish, and the feudal system in Turkey employed the term Arpalik, or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.<ref>{{cite book|last=Houtsma M Th|coauthors=Arnold TW, Wensinck AJ|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936|publisher=Brill|date=1993|pages=460|isbn=9004097961}}</ref>

===Medicine===

Barley is used as a medicine for many different diseases.
In the religion of [[Islam]], the [[Prophet Muhammad]] prescribed it for seven diseases.
<blockquote>
'''Hadith'''
''Volume 7, Book 71, Number 593: (Narrated 'Ursa)''

Aisha used to recommend At-Talbina for the sick and for such a person as grieved over a dead person. She used to say, "I heard Allah's Apostle saying, 'At-Talbina gives rest to the heart of the patient and makes it active and relieves some of his sorrow and grief.' "
</blockquote>

Known in Arabic as ''At-Talbina'', it was narrated in Islam that it helped people who lose others to death and controls grief. Illnesses include high cholesterol levels, heart disease, treatment of cancer and slowing of age, treatment for diabetes and hypertension, as well as soothing and calming effects for the bowel.{{Fact|date=March 2009}} [[Avicenna]] in his 11th century work ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' wrote of the healing effects of barley water, soup and broth for fevers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scully|first=Terence|coauthors=Dumville DN|title=The art of cookery in the Middle Ages|publisher=Boydell Press|date=1997|pages=187-88|isbn=0851154301}}</ref>


==Plant diseases==
==Plant diseases==

Revision as of 04:35, 12 April 2009

For other uses, see Barley (disambiguation).
"Two Row" redirects here. For the Wampum Treaty, see Guswhenta (Two Row Wampum Treaty).

Barley
Barley field
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Monocots
(unranked):
Commelinids
Order:
Poales
Family:
Poaceae
Subfamily:
Pooideae
Tribe:
Triticeae
Genus:
Hordeum
Species:
H. vulgare[1]
Binomial name
Hordeum vulgare

Barley is a cereal grain derived from the annual grass Hordeum vulgare. It serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food, as well as the making of the alcoholic beverages beer and whisky. In 2005 ranking of cereal crops in the world, barley was fourth in quantity produced and in area of cultivation (560,000 km²).[2] It is still used as a food staple in the middle east.

It is a member of the grass family. The domesticated form (H. vulgare) is descended from wild barley (H. spontaneum) and they are inter-fertile.[3] The two forms are therefore often treated as one species, Hordeum vulgare, divided into subspecies spontaneum (wild) and subspecies vulgare (domesticated). The main difference between the two forms is the brittle spike on the seeds of the spontaneum, which assists dispersal.

Etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary records the derivation from the Old English bærlic "barley", although the -lic ending may indicate it was an adjective pertaining to the crop or plant, rather than a noun. It was first recorded around 966 CE in the compound word bærlic-croft.[4] The old English word was bære, which was related to the Latin word farina "flour", and gave rise to bærlic meaning "of barley".[5] It survives in the north of Scotland as bere, and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there.[6][7][8] The word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words.[5]

Biology

Barley is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. Wild barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside of this region the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats.[3]

Wild barley has a brittle spike; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal. Cultivated varieties of barley have non-shattering spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.[3] The non-shattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two tightly linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2; many cultivars possess both mutations. The non-shattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele.[3]

Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley (and other Old World species or Hordeum) only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominate, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets. This produces six-row barleys. (See Cultivars).[3]

The combination of these traits led to different forms of barley being classified into different species. Two-rowed barley with shattering spikes were classified as Hordeum spontaneum C.Koch. Two-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes were classified as H. distichum L., six-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes as H. vulgare L. (or H. hexastichum L.), and six-rowed with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon Åberg. The fact that these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence led to the conclusion that all of these were all members of a single species, H. vulgare L.[3]

History

Barley was one of the first crops domesticated in the Near East, at the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat.[9] Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east.[3] The earliest evidence of wild barley in an archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 17000 BCE.[3] The earliest domesticated barley occurs at Aceramic Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500–850 BCE) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes.[10]

In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; i.e. why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others, while attempting to refute the belief that Eurasian hegemony is due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral, or inherent genetic superiority.

Barley in Egyptian hieroglyphs
jt barley determinative/ideogram
M34
jt (common) spelling
itU9
M33
šma determinative/ideogram
U9

Barley beer was probably the first drink developed by Neolithic humans.[11] Barley later on was used as currency.[11] Alongside emmer wheat, Barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread and beer. The general name for barley is jt (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); šma (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. The Sumerian term is akiti. According to Deuteronomy 8:8, barley is one of the "Seven Species" of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and barley has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers 5:15). A religious importance extended into the Middle Ages in Europe, and saw barley's use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned.

In ancient Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, was referred to in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, who was also called "Barley-mother".[citation needed] The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder's Natural History (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic.

Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as hordearii "barley-eaters". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple.[12]

Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibet since the fifth century A.D. It along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies.[13] It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet,[14] and into hand-rolled balls.[13]

Baled barley straw in Falcon, Colorado

In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes.[12] Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century.[15]

Production

Barley output in 2005
Top Ten Barley Producers — 2005
(million metric tonne)
 Russia 16.7
 Canada 12.1
 Germany 11.7
 France 10.4
 Ukraine 9.3
 Turkey 9.0
 Australia 6.6
 United Kingdom 5.5
 United States 4.6
 Spain 4.4
World Total 138
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO)[16]

Barley was grown in about 100 countries worldwide in 2005. The world production in 1974 was 148,818,870 tonnes, showing little change in the amount of barley produced worldwide.

Its use as a food is generally restricted to animal feed, except in the Middle East.[12]

Cultivation

Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation on Mesopotamia from the 2nd millennium BC onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats (Triticum aestivum), fall rye (Secale cereale) or winter Triticale (× Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of the world such as Australia.

Barley has a short growing season and is also relatively drought tolerant.[12]

Cultivars

Two-row and six-row barley

Barley can be classified according to the number of kernel rows in the head. Two forms have been cultivated; two-row barley (formerly known as Hordeum distichum but now also classed as Hordeum vulgare), and six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare). In two-row barley only one spikelet at each node is fertile; in the four-row and six-row forms, all three are fertile. A four-row type (formerly classed as (Hordeum tetrastichum) is actually a six-row type with very lax structure.

Two-row barley is the oldest form, wild barley having two rows as well. Two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley and thus more fermentable sugar content. High protein barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein [2]('low grain nitrogen', usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English ale style beers. Six-row barley is common in some American lager style beers, especially when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used, whereas two-row malted summer barley is preferred for traditional German beers. Four-row is unsuitable for brewing. Recent genetic studies have revealed a mutation in one gene, vrs1 is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley[17]

Hulless or "naked" barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f.) is a genetically improved variety that has an easier to remove hull. A fairly new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley in order to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry.[18] Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications.[19]

Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is anywhere from 1 to 3 days. Barley likes to grow under cool conditions but is not particularly winter hardy.

Uses

Algicide

Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help reduce algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algaecide in ponds has produced mixed results during university testing in the US and England.[20]

Animal feed

Half of the United States' barley production is used as an animal feed.[21] Barley is an important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for maize production, especially in northern climates. Barley is the principal feed grain in Canada, Europe, and in the northern United States.[22]

Alcoholic beverages

Beer

A large part of the remainder is used for malting, for which barley is the best suited grain.[23] It is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers, but both varieties are in common usage now.[24] Distilled from green beer,[25] whisky has been made from barley in Ireland and Scotland, while other countries have utilized more diverse sources of alcohol; such as the more common corn, rye and molasses in the USA. The grain name may be applied to the alcohol if it constitutes 51% or more of the ingredients.[26]

Non-alcoholic drinks such as barley water[5] and barley tea (called mugicha in Japan),[27] have been made by boiling barley in water. Barley wine was an alcoholic drink made in the 1700s, prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin. It was prepared by boiling barley in water, the water from the barley was then mixed with white wine, and other ingredients like borage, lemon and sugar were added.[5]

Food

Oats, barley, and some products made from them
Raw barley
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,474 kJ (352 kcal)
77.7 g
Sugars0.8 g
Dietary fiber15.6 g
1.2 g
9.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
17%
0.2 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
8%
0.1 mg
Niacin (B3)
29%
4.6 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
6%
0.3 mg
Vitamin B6
18%
0.3 mg
Folate (B9)
6%
23 μg
Vitamin C
0%
0.0 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
29.0 mg
Iron
14%
2.5 mg
Magnesium
19%
79.0 mg
Phosphorus
18%
221 mg
Potassium
9%
280 mg
Zinc
19%
2.1 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[28] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[29]

Barley contains all eight essential amino acids.[30][31] According to a recent study, eating whole grain barley can regulate blood sugar for up to 10 hours after consumption compared to white or even whole-grain wheat, which has a similar glycemic index.[32] Barley can also be used as a coffee substitute.

Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous outer hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley).[33] Considered a whole grain, dehulled barley still has its bran and germ making it a nutritious and popular health food. Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled barley which has been steam processed further to remove the bran.[33] It may be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into a variety of barley products, including flour, flakes similar to oatmeal, and grits.

Barley-meal, a wholemeal barley flour which is lighter than wheatmeal but darker in colour, is used in porridge and gruel in Scotland.[33] Barley-meal gruel is known as Sawiq in the Arab world.[34] With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East, barley is used in a wide range of traditional Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and Turkish foodstuffs including kashkak, kashk and murri. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia.[35] It is also used in soups and stews in Eastern Europe. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.[36]

The six row variety bere is cultivated in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles in the Scottish Highlands and islands. The grain is used to make beremeal, used locally in bread, biscuits, and the traditional beremeal bannock.[37]

Measurement

Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being 3 or 4 barleycorns to the inch and 4 or 5 poppy seeds to the barleycorn.[38] The statute definition of an inch was 3 barleycorns, although by the 19th century this had been superseded by standard inch measures.[39] This unit still persists in the shoe sizes which are used in Britain and the USA.[40]

The barleycorn was known as arpa in Turkish, and the feudal system in Turkey employed the term Arpalik, or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.[41]

Plant diseases

Main article: List of barley diseases

This plant is known or likely to be susceptible to barley mild mosaic bymovirus[42][43] as well as bacterial blight. Barley can be susceptible to many diseases but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development.

Composition

The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) cites the following composition of barley meal according to Ernst von Bibra, omitting the salts:[44]

Water 15%
Nitrogenous compounds 12.981%
Gum 6.744%
Sugar 3.200%
Starch 59.950%
Fat 2.170%

Cultural depictions

The figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it, beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting.

References

  1. ^ "Report". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  2. ^ "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Zohary, Daniel (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd edition ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 59–69. ISBN 0198503571. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed. (1989). "barley". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |editor= has generic name (help)
  5. ^ a b c d Ayto, John (1990), The glutton's glossary : a dictionary of food and drink terms, London: Routledge, pp. 16–17, ISBN 0415026474
  6. ^ "Dictionary of the Scots Language: "DSL - SND1 BEAR, BERE, Beer, Bar"". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
  7. ^ Smout, T.C. (1972) A History of the Scottish People 1560-1830 p114
  8. ^ "Dictionary of the Scots Language: "DSL - DOST Bere, Beir"". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
  9. ^ -Saltini Antonio, I semi della civiltà. Grano, riso e mais nella storia delle società umane,, prefazione di Luigi Bernabò Brea Avenue Media, Bologna 1996
  10. ^ Crawford, Gary W. (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula". Antiquity. 77 (295): 87–95. ISSN 0003-598X. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ a b Pellechia, Thomas (2006), Wine : the 8,000-year-old story of the wine trade, Philadelphia: Running Press, p. 10, ISBN 1560258713
  12. ^ a b c d McGee, p. 235
  13. ^ a b Fernandez, Felipe Armesto (2001), Civilizations: Culture, Ambition and the Transformation of Nature, p. 265, ISBN 0743216504
  14. ^ Dreyer, June Teufel; Sautman, Barry (2006), Contemporary Tibet : politics, development, and society in a disputed region, Armonk, New York: Sharpe, p. 262, ISBN 0765613549
  15. ^ Roden, Claudia (1997). The Book of Jewish Food. Knopf. p. 135. ISBN 0394532589.
  16. ^ http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN
  17. ^ Komatsuda, T. (2006). "Six-rowed barley originated from a mutation in a homeodomain-leucine zipper I-class homeobox gene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (4): 1424–1429.
  18. ^ Bhatty, R.S. (1999). "The potential of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry. 76: 589–599.
  19. ^ Bhatty, R.S. (1999). "β-glucan and flour yield of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry. 76: 314–315.
  20. ^ http://www.btny.purdue.edu/pubs/APM/APM-1-W.pdf
  21. ^ "Barley". Retrieved 2008-2-2. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  22. ^ [1]
  23. ^ McGee, p. 471
  24. ^ Ogle, Maureen (2006), Ambitious brew : the story of American beer, Orlando, pp. 70–72, ISBN 0151010129{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ^ McGee, p. 481
  26. ^ McGee, p. 490
  27. ^ Clarke, ed by R J (1988), Coffee, London: Elsevier Applied Science, p. 84, ISBN 1851661034
  28. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  29. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  30. ^ http://www.womens-health-symmetry.com/barley-grass.html
  31. ^ http://www.essentialfood.co.uk/barley-presprouted.php
  32. ^ Nilsson, A. (2006). "Effects of GI and content of indigestible carbohydrates of cereal-based evening meals on glucose tolerance at a subsequent standardised breakfast". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 60: 1092–1099. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602423. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ a b c Simon, André (1963) Guide to Good Food and Wines: A Concise Encylopedia of Gastronomy Complete and Unabridged p. 150 Collins, London
  34. ^ Tabari, W. Montgomery Watt, M. V. McDonald (1987). The History of Al-Tabari: The Foundation of the Community: Muhammad at Al-Madina, A. D. 622-626/ijrah-4 A. H. SUNY Press. ISBN 0887063446, 9780887063442. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Long, David E. (2005). Culture and customs of Saudi Arabia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 50. ISBN 0313320217.
  36. ^ National Research Council (1996-02-14). "Other Cultivated Grains". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 1. National Academies Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-309-04990-0. Retrieved 2008-07-25. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |origdate= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Martin, Peter (2008-06). "Bere Whisky: rediscovering the spirit of an old barley". The Brewer & Distiller International. 4 (6): 41–43. Retrieved 2008-11-14. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2009
  39. ^ George Long (1842), The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, p. 436
  40. ^ Cairns, Warwick. About the Size of It. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-01628-6.
  41. ^ Houtsma M Th (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. Brill. p. 460. ISBN 9004097961. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Brunt, A.A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M.J., Gibbs, A.J., Watson, L. and Zurcher, E.J. (editors) (20 August 1996). "Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database". {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ "Barley mild mosaic bymovirus".
  44. ^ "Barley". [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (Eleventh Edition ed.). Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica. 1910. p. 405. Retrieved 2006-11-21. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |origmonth=, |month=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); URL–wikilink conflict (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

Cited texts

  • McGee, Harold (1986). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Unwin. ISBN 0-04-440277-5.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barley.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hordeum vulgare.
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