Jump to content

Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, which is Syrian-led but has branches in multiple countries. For the branch that controls Syria, see Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region.

Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي
Governing bodyCentral Command (from 2018)
General SecretaryBashar al-Assad
Assistant General SecretaryIbrahim al-Hadid[1][2]
Founded25 February 1966 (25 February 1966)
Split fromBa'ath Party (unitary)
HeadquartersDamascus, Syria
NewspaperBa'ath Message[3]
IdeologyNeo-Ba'athism
Assadism
Arab nationalism
Pan-Arabism
Arab socialism
Syrian nationalism
Syrian irredentism
Anti-imperialism
Anti-Zionism
Historical:
Revolutionary socialism (1966–1970)[4]
Political positionFar-left[5]
International affiliationAxis of Resistance
Colors    
Black, red, white and green (pan-Arab colors)
Slogan"Unity, Freedom, Socialism"[6]
People's Assembly of Syria
169 / 250
Parliament of Lebanon
1 / 128
Party flag
Website
baath-party.org

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي, romanized: Ḥizb al-Ba‘th al-‘Arabī al-Ishtirākī; ba‘th meaning "resurrection"), also referred to as the pro-Syrian Ba'ath movement, is a neo-Ba'athist political party with branches across the Arab world. The party emerged from a split in the Ba'ath Party in February 1966 and leads the government in Syria. From 1970 until 2000, the party was led by the Syrian president and Secretary General Hafez al-Assad. Until October 2018, leadership has been shared between his son Bashar al-Assad (head of the Syrian regional organization) and Abdullah al-Ahmar (head of the pan-Arab national organization). In 2017, after the reunification of the National and Regional Command, Bashar al-Assad became the Secretary General of the Central Command. The Syrian branch of the Party is the largest organisation within the Syrian-led Ba'ath Party.

Leadership

[edit]
Part of a series on
Ba'athism
Flag of the Ba'ath Party
Organisations
Arab Ba'ath1940–1947
Arab Ba'ath Movement1940–1947
Ba'ath Party1947–1966
Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)1968–2003
Baath Party (pro-Syrian)1966–present
People
Literature
History
Regional organisations
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Palestine
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Yemen
Splinter groups
Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party1960–1962/63
Socialist Lebanon1965–1970
Arab Revolutionary Workers Party1966–present
Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party1970–present
Sudanese Ba'ath Party2002–present
Related topics

General Secretary

[edit]

Hafez al-Assad became the Secretary of the Syrian Regional Command of the party in 1970 and Secretary General of the National Command in late 1970.[7][8] Despite being deceased, Hafez al-Assad was the official Secretary General of the National Command. Bashar al-Assad became the Regional Secretary of the party in Syria after his father's death in 2000.[9][10] In 2017, Bashar al-Assad was elected the General Secretary of the National Council.[11]

Assistant General Secretary

[edit]

Abdullah al-Ahmar served as the Assistant Secretary General of the National Command, a post he has held since 1971 until 2018.[10][12] Between 26 October 2018 and 8 May 2024, Hilal Hilal was an Assistant Secretary General of the Central Command. In May 2024, Dr. Ibrahim al-Hadid was elected as the new Assistant Secretary of the Central Command.[2]

Central Command

[edit]

In 2018, Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, was established through the merger of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and the Regional Command of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party.[11]

National Council

[edit]

At the 14th Conference of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 2017, the National Command, the party's leading organ since its inception, was abolished and replaced by the National Council. It was decided that the National Council would be composted of the regional secretaries of the regional branches of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party.[11]

National Congresses

[edit]

Note: for the 1st–8th National Congresses, see the national congresses held by the unified, pre-1966 Ba'ath Party.

  • 9th National Congress (25–29 September 1966)
    • 9th Extraordinary National Congress (September 1967)
  • 10th National Party Congress (October 1968)
    • 10th Extraordinary National Congress (October–November 1970)
  • 11th National Congress (August 1971)
  • 12th National Congress (July 1975)
  • 13th National Congress (27 July – 2 August 1980)
  • 14th National Congress (15–21 May 2017)[13]

Organization

[edit]

The 1963 National Congress of the Party in Damascus advocated a far-left posture; proclaiming the party as the vehicle for socialist revolution and building a socialist society. Key Marxist programmes such as worker's control of economic production and collectivizing of agricultural lands were adopted.[14] The party is organized along Leninist lines, a policy stemming back to Aflaq and Bitar's leadership before the split.[15] The highest organ of the party is the Party Congress. The Congress elects a General Secretary and a National Command. Under the National Command there is a Regional Command for each state in which the party operates. The regions are divided into branches, which are divided into companies. A branch consists of two or more companies. A company comprises three to seven cells.[16] Each cell has between three and seven members.[17]

In theory, the National Command of the party is the embryonic government for the entire Arab nation. The body comprises 21 members, half of whom are Syrian.[15] In practice, the Syrian Regional Command is the more powerful institution inside the party.[18] The Syrian Regional Command is the real political leadership in Syria; the power of the National Command has become more symbolic than real. A seat in National Command has become a sinecure, an honorary post given to Syrian politicians as they retire from active political life.[17][19] Hafez al-Assad rarely had time to attend National Command meetings. Instead, he appointed Vice President for Party Affairs Zuhayr Masharqa or Abd al-Halim Khaddam to represent him at National Command meetings.[19] In theory, the National Command could conduct proselytism and form new Regional Commands across the Arab world and support weaker Regional Commands, but Syrian policymakers have curtailed that capacity.[17]

Branches by region

[edit]
Main article: List of Ba'athist movements
Ba'athist Syria's hegemonic ambitions between 1958 and 2005.

Iraq

[edit]
Iraqi branch
Regional SecretaryMouteb Shenan
Assistant Regional SecretaryMahmud Rashad Al-Shaykh Radhi
Founded1966

The party was sometimes known in Iraq as left-wing Ba'ath or Qutr Al-Iraq.[20][21] Prominent members of the party in Iraq include Mahmud Rashad Al-Shaykh Radhi, Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi and Dr. Mahmud Shamsa.[22] The party opposed the rule of Saddam Hussein[23] and was one of the first groups to be targeted by him. The party lost hundreds of its cadres amid repression by his government.[24] Radhi was based in Syria during the 1970s.[25]

The party labelled the Saddam government as "fascist".[20] When the Iran–Iraq War broke out in 1980, the party took part in the formation of the Iraqi Patriotic and Democratic Front, together with the Iraqi Communist Party, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdish Socialist Party. The front vowed to overthrow Saddam.[26] (Syria supported Iran in the Iraq-Iran War.)

In the 1980s, the party began cooperating with the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq.[24] The party organized the first general conference of Iraqi opposition groups in Damascus in 1989. It also participated in a conference of Iraqi opposition groups in Beirut in 1991.[21] In 1999, Radhi was staying in the United Kingdom.[27] The party was one of three main groups (along with the Iraqi Communist Party and the Islamic Dawa Party) which formed the Coalition of Iraqi National Forces. The Coalition was opposed to Saddam Hussein as well as United States military intervention.[28] During the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the party publicly denounced U.S. involvement in the organization of Iraqi dissidents in exile.[29]

After the fall of Saddam's administration, confusion arose as to whether the de-Ba'athification law also applied to the party.[30] In 2008, Radhi requested that the party be allowed to function inside Iraq and join the process of reconciliation.[20] In response, the Iraqi government declared that they viewed Qotr al-Iraq as distinct from Saddam's Ba'ath because Qotr al-Iraq had participated in the opposition conferences during the Saddam years.[30] As of 2009, the Iraqi regional organization is still based in Syria.[31]

In 2018 Radhi, based in London, visited Baghdad and met President Fuad Masum during reconciliation talks.[32]

Jordan

[edit]
Main article: Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party

The Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party was legally registered for the first time in 1993. The branch is small, and has, according to a leaked diplomatic cable, a "minuscule number of adherents". Despite its small size, the branch is able through its leader, Fuad Dabbour, to get a decent footprint in Jordanian media. Dabbour's fiery statements on foreign policy are frequently quoted by the press.[citation needed] The party is less known than its pro-Iraqi counterpart, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party.[33] It is the party branch of the Syrian-dominated Ba'ath Party in Jordan.[34] Fuad Dabbour is the branch's Regional Secretary.[35] It is believed that the party has fewer than 200 members.[36]

Regional Secretaries
  • Mahmood Ma'ayteh
  • Fuad Dabbour

Lebanon

[edit]
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region

The Lebanese branch was established in 1966, the year of the Ba'ath Party split. During the Lebanese Civil War, the party had an armed militia called the Assad Battalion.[37] The party joined forces with Kamal Jumblatt's Progressive Socialist Party in organizing the National Democratic Movement, seeking to abolish the confessional state.[38] The National Democratic Movement was superseded by the National Democratic Front, in which the party participated.[39] The party organized resistance against Israeli forces in Lebanon.[40] In July 1987, it took part in forming the Unification and Liberation Front.[41]

In the 2009 parliamentary election, the party won two seats as part of the March 8 Alliance. The parliamentarians of the party are Assem Qanso and Qassem Hashem.[42] Wael Nader al-Halqi, the Prime Minister of Syria, praised the Lebanon Regional Branch leadership, stating that they supported the Syrian leadership and stayed loyal to the Assads despite the Syrian occupation of Lebanon and in times of conspiracies and attacks.[43] Since 2018, party is along the Amal Movement part of Development and Liberation parliamentary bloc. As of 2023, the leader of the party is Ali Hijazi. In the 2022 parliamentary election, the party won one seat.[44]

Mauritania

[edit]
Main article: Socialist Democratic Unionist Party

A secret Syrian branch was established in Mauritania in 1981.[45] The party was founded on 20 September 1994 by a mixture of Arab nationalists and members of a secret Ba'ath party association in Mauritania. The party won a seat in the 19 November and 3 December 2006 elections. In the 2013 election, the party lost its seat. In the most recent elections in 2018, the party received only 0.31% of the vote.[46]

As of 2013, the party is led by Mahfouz Weld al-Azizi.[47] The party has strongly supported the Syrian government throughout the Syrian Civil War.[48]

Palestine

[edit]
Main article: As-Sa'iqa

Palestinian Samir al-Attari was a member of the National Command in the 1970s.[12] Until 1970, as-Saiqa remained under the control of Jadid.[49] Following the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, as-Sa'iqa took up arms in support of the Syrian Ba'athist government, participating in numerous military operations such as the Southern Damascus offensive (April–May 2018).[50]

As-Sa'iqa Secretary-General
  • Zuheir Mohsen (1971–1979; he was also a member of the National Command)[51]
  • Isam al-Qadi (1979–2006)
  • Farhan Abu Al-Hayja (2007–2018)
  • Mohammed Qeis (2018–present)
Regional Secretaries
  • Farhan Abulhaija (?–?)[52]

Sudan

[edit]
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan

During the 1980s, the party was called Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan (differentiating it from the pro-Iraqi party, called Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Country of Sudan). The party participated in the 1986 election as part of the Progressive National Front.[53]

The party held its third regional congress in Khartoum on February 5–6, 2009. The congress elected a 23-member Central Committee, an 11-member Regional Command and a regional secretary (Altijani Mustafa Yassin). The congress stated that the party sought cooperation with the National Congress Party for the sake of forming a national front.[54][55] The party staunchly opposed independence of South Sudan.[55] It was reported in 2010 that Ahmad Alahmad, the Secretary General of the Arab Socialist Movement, was a member of the Sudanese regional leadership.[56]

Regional Secretaries
  • Altijani Mustafa Yassin[57]

Syria

[edit]
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region
The logo of the Syrian branch organization

The party slogan "Unity, Freedom, Socialism" was enshrined in the Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic.[19] The eighth article of the Constitution stipulated that "[t]he leading party in the society and the state is the ... Ba'ath Party. It leads the National Progressive Front seeking to unify the resources of the masses of the people and place them at the service of the goals of the Arab nation".[9] The Constitution was adopted in 1973.[58] As per the Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic, it is the Regional Command of the party that nominates the candidate for president of the republic.[7][59] The Constitution does not explicitly say that the president has to be the leader of the party, but the National Progressive Front (NPF) charter states that president of the Syrian Arab Republic and the secretary of the party is also the president of the NPF.[7]

The party has dominated the Syrian parliament since 1963.[9] The party leads the National Progressive Front and in all elections conducted under this constitution has obtained the majority of the 167 parliamentary seats reserved for the Front.[59] In the 2003 parliamentary election, the party secured 135 of the seats.[9] As of the mid-2000s, the party membership in Syria was estimated at 800,000. Key party organs in Syria are Al-Ba'ath and Al-Thawra.[9] Due to the party's focus on intellectuals and affluent elites, it failed to gain support from the economically weaker sections such as the urban workers and rural farmers. As a result, its support base was vastly limited to affluent merchant classes of Damascus and the Alawite clans in the North-Western coast.[60]

The Syrian Regional Command has 21 members.[17] As of 1987, the Syrian Regional Command comprised the three vice presidents of the Syrian Arab Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, the parliamentary speaker, the Aleppo and Hama party secretaries as well as the heads of the party bureaus for trade unions, economy and higher education.[17]

The seventh Syrian regional party congress was held in January 1980. The congress created a new institution, the Central Committee, to act as an intermediary body between the Regional Command and local branches. The Central Committee had 75 members. The eighth regional congress decided to expand the Central Committee to 95 members. The Central Committee was charged with electing the Regional Command, which previously had been done by the regional congress delegates. The Central Committee represents the regional congress when the congress is not in session.[17]

The party has 19 branches in Syria: one in each of the thirteen provinces: one in Damascus, one in Aleppo and one at each of the four universities.[17] In most cases, the governor of a province, police chief, mayor and other local dignitaries make up the Branch Command, but the Branch Command Secretary and other executive positions are filled by party whole-timers.[clarification needed][17]

The Syrian regional party congress is held every four years. While it is a strictly orchestrated affair, the regional congress has been a venue for actual debates on current affairs. Criticism against corruption and economic stagnation were expressed at the 1985 regional congress, albeit candidly. This congress was attended by 771 branch delegates.[61]

The party has a parallel structure within the Syrian armed forces. The military and civilian sectors only meet at the regional level, as the military sector is represented in the Regional Command and sends delegates to regional congresses. The military sector is divided into branches, operating at the battalion level. The head of a military party branch is called a tawjihi ("guide").[17]

The party has an Inspection and Control Committee, instituted in 1980.[61] The Party Security Law was passed in 1979, criminalizing "deviations" inside the party and attacks on the party.[61]

The party has three bureaus for coordinating work in mass organizations: the Popular Organizations Bureau (coordinating the People's Army militia, the Revolutionary Youth Union, Students Union and the General Union of Syrian Women); the Workers Bureau (coordinating the General Federation of Trade Unions); and the Peasants Bureau (coordinating the Peasants Federation).[62] Children joined the Vanguards, an organization for grade-school boys and girls. Vanguards attended paramilitary summer camps operated by the armed forces. In the mid-1970s, the party ran a mass campaign for the mobilization of peasants into the Peasants Federation.[63]

The party has its own system of political education, including the Higher Political Institute (a graduate school of the University of Damascus).[63]

Abdul Halim Khaddam resigned as National Command and Central Committee member in mid-2005.[64]

Tunisia

[edit]

There is no formal structure linked to the Damascus-based Ba'ath Party. Most Ba'athists in Tunisia support the Iraqi faction as members of the Ba'ath Movement or the more leftist and radical the Party of the Arab and Democratic Vanguard. Only a small number of militants headed by Mohamed Salah Hermassi (a member of the Damascus-based National Command) are historically linked to Damascus.[65]

Yemen

[edit]
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region

Ba'athism in Yemen originated in the 1950s. The party worked underground until 1990. It obtained official registration as the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region on December 31, 1995 (while the other group had to register as the National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party).[clarification needed] The assistant regional secretary of the party in Yemen was Mohammed Al-Zubairy.[66] The party ran in the 1993 parliamentary election, winning seven seats. In the 1997 and 2003 parliamentary elections, the party won two seats. In 2003, the party got 0.66% of the national vote. The party supported Ali Abdullah Saleh in the 1999 presidential election.[67]

Abdullah al-Ahmar led a central party delegation to the 4th Regional Congress of the Yemenite Ba'ath in 2006.[68]

In December 2008, the party and the National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party agreed to coordinate their political activities.[31]

In November 2010, one of the key leaders of the party in Yemen, Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab, died. He had been assistant secretary of the Regional Command and a Member of Parliament since 1993.[69][70]

In March 2013, Linda Mohammed, the head of the region's Women section, left the party in protest at the Yemenite leadership's continued support for Bashar al-Assad and the Syrian Ba'ath.[66]

Regional Secretaries
  • Unknown
  • Mahmoud Abdul-Wahab Abdul-Hamid (?–?)[71]
  • Quasim Salaam (?–present)
Assistant Regional Secretaries
  • Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab (1993 – November 30, 2010)[72]
  • Ahmad Haidar (?–?)[57]
  • Mohammed Al-Zubairy (?-?)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "السيرة الذاتية للرفاق أعضاء القيادة المركزية لحزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي07-05-2024".
  2. ^ a b "هنأ بوتين بتنصيبه رئيساً لروسيا الاتحادية لولاية جديدة … الرئيس الأسد للقيادة المركزية: الحوار أحد أهم آليات تعزيز حضور «البع" [He congratulated Putin on his inauguration as President of the Russian Federation for a new term... President al-Assad of the Central Command: Dialogue is one of the most important mechanisms for strengthening the presence of the “Baath Party.”]. Al Watan Newspaper. 9 May 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
  3. ^ Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. "Baath Message". Archived from the original on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  4. ^ Walt, Stephen (1987). "3:From the Baghdad Pact to the Six Day War". The Origins of Alliances. Cornell University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-8014-9418-5. yet another coup d'etat in Syria in February 1966 ousted the old guard of the Ba'th Party... and gave a radical faction (subsequently dubbed the neo-Ba'th) undisputed power. Abandoning the traditional goal of Arab unity, the new leaders proclaimed a radical socialist platform at home and a commitment to violent revolutionary activity abroad..
  5. ^ Multiple sources:
    • Cavoški, Jovan (2022). Non-Aligned Movement Summits: A History. UK: Bloomsburry. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-3500-3209-5. Syria, headed by the radical leftist Baath Party overtly challenged Nasser's leadership credentials by highlighting his diminished revolutionary spirit.
    • I. Dawisha, Adeed (1980). "3: External and Internal Setting". Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. London, UK: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-349-05373-5. The change has been particularly marked under Asad. He has created a fairly popular Presidential regime: radical left, the most advanced socialist regime in the Arab world, it is progressively widening the frame to include more peasants and labourers.
    • The Israel Economist. Vol. 26–27. University of Minnesota: Kollek & Son, Limited. 1970. p. 61. The ideology propounded by the Ba'ath changed completely. The accent on Arab nationalism was discarded as was moderate socialism. Their place was taken by Syrian nationalism and extreme left-wing ideas verging on communism.
    • Abadi, Jacob (2004). Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy. London, UK: Frank Class Publishers. p. 22. ISBN 0-7146-5576-7. radical left-wing Ba'ath party in Syria.
    • S. Abu Jaber, Kamel (1966). The Arab Ba'th Socialist Party: History, Ideology and Organization. Syracuse, New York, USA: Syracuse University Press. pp. xii–xiii, 33–47, 75–97. LCCN 66-25181. The leadership now in control of Syria does not represent the gamut of the Ba'th party. It is composed mainly of extreme leftists vesting almost exclusive authority in the military wing of the party.
    • Hopwood, Derek (2013). Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society. Routledge. pp. 45–46, 73–75, 90. doi:10.4324/9781315818955. ISBN 9781317818427. The period 1963 to 1970 when Asad finally succeeded was marked ideologically by uncertainty and even turbulence. It was a period of transition from the old nationalist politicians to the radical socialist Baathis.. struggle between 'moderates' and radicals was centred on the dispute whether to impose a radical left wing government and a social revolution on Syria or to follow a more moderate Arab unionist course which would possibly appease opponents of the Baath. The radicals largely held the upper hand and worked to strengthen the control of the party over the state.
    • Phillips, Christopher (2020). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East. London, UK: Yale University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-300-21717-9. In 1963.. the socialist Ba'ath Party, seized power. The radical left wing of the party then launched an internal coup in 1966, initiating accelerated land reform
    • Mikhaĭlovich Vasilʹev, Alekseĭ (1993). Russian Policy in the Middle East: From Messianism to Pragmatism. University of Michigan, USA: Ithaca Press. pp. 63, 76. ISBN 978-0863721687. Syrian Baathist version of Arab nationalism and socialism offered plenty of points of contact with Soviet policy.. when the left-wing Baathist faction led by Nureddin Atasi came to power, accelerated Syria's rapprochement with the Soviet Union.. for the USSR Syria remained an uneasy ally whose actions were beyond control, often unpredictable and the cause of complications. The ultra-leftist slogans originating from Damascus (such as a "people's war") were not received enthusiastically in Moscow. Mustafa Tlas, the new Syrian chief of staff, was a theoretician of guerrilla warfare and had even translated works by Che Guevara who was not particularly popular among the Soviet leaders."
    • Climent, James (2015). World Terrorism: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence from Ancient Times to the Post-9/11 Era (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-7656-8284-0. influence of different views, came from the more radical left-wing nationalist groups. These groups included.. Syria's Ba'ath party which seized power in Damascus in 1963
  6. ^ Perthes, Volker (1997). The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. I.B. Tauris. p. 156. ISBN 1-86064-192-X.
  7. ^ a b c Perthes, Volker (1997). The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. I.B. Tauris. p. 140. ISBN 1-86064-192-X.
  8. ^ Perthes, Volker (1974). The Current digest of the Soviet Press. Vol. 26. American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies. p. 4–5.
  9. ^ a b c d e Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscillia Mary (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 183–184. ISBN 978-1-85109-841-5.
  10. ^ a b "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party". Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  11. ^ a b c "انعقاد المؤتمر القومي الرابع عشر لحزب البعث.. الهلال: قرارات المؤتمر تساعد في الانتقال إلى عمل قومي مميز- فيديو". Syrian Arab News Agency. 14 May 2017. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  12. ^ a b Brechner, Michael (1978). Studies in Crisis Behavior. Transaction Publishers. p. 257. ISBN 0-87855-292-8.
  13. ^ Samer Dahi (11 May 2017). "بعد 37 عاماً يعقد مؤتمره القومي الـ14.. تعديلات على «النظام الداخلي» و«المنطلقات النظرية» وحل للقيادة القومية … «البعث» يعلن «مجلسه الاستشاري القومي» الأسبوع المقبل.. وينتخب الرئيس الأسد أميناً عاماً الخمي". Al-Watan Newspaper. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
  14. ^ Dawisha, A. I. (1978). "Syria under Asad, 1970–78: The Centres of Power". Government and Opposition. 13 (3). Cambridge University Press: 341–354. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.1978.tb00552.x. S2CID 145098299 – via Cambridge core.
  15. ^ a b Collelo, Thomas (1988). Syria: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 214.
  16. ^ Choueiri, Youssef M. (2000). Arab nationalism: a History: Nation and State in the Arab World. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 234. ISBN 0-631-21729-0.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Collelo, Thomas (1988). Syria: A Country Study. Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 215.
  18. ^ Yildiz, Kerim (2005). The Kurds in Syria: The Forgotten People. Pluto Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-7453-2499-1.
  19. ^ a b c Perthes, Volker (1997). The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. I.B. Tauris. p. 156. ISBN 1-86064-192-X.
  20. ^ a b c "اخبار العراق كما اوردتها الصحافة العربية والعالمية". 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
  21. ^ a b "وجهات نظر | لا تفرطوا بـ"قيادة قطر العراق"..! | Al Ittihad Newspaper - جريدة الاتحاد". 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
  22. ^ U.S. Labor Against War. Who's Who in the Iraqi Opposition Archived 2016-03-10 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ^ "البعث السوري العراقي: نحن الذين اوصلنا رجال الحكم الحاليين الى السلطة". Aljewar.org. 25 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  24. ^ a b Asharq al-Awsat. عبد المهدي: اللقاء بحزب البعث ـ تنظيم العراق لم ينقطع.. ولا مشكلة لنا مع القوميين Archived 2012-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ Al-Ittihad. في الذكرى الثالثة والثلاثين لميلاد الأتحاد عبدالرزاق فيلي Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ McDowall, David (2000). A Modern History of the Kurds. I.B.Tauris. p. 346. ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
  27. ^ Iraqi Patriotic Alliance. قداسة الحبر الأعظم يوحنا بولص الثاني المحترم Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ Salucci, Illario (2005). A People's History of Iraq: the Iraqi Communist Party, Workers' movements and the Left, 1924–2004. Haymarket Books. p. 102. ISBN 1-931859-14-0.
  29. ^ Nahrain. مقاطعو مؤتمر لندن للمعارضة العراقية لماذا يقاطعون؟ Archived 2005-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ a b "حقيقة الجدل العراقي حول الانفتاح على (حزب البعث) السابق - مركز النور". Alnoor.se. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  31. ^ a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  32. ^ Limited, Elaph Publishing (22 March 2018). "مسؤول بعث العراق "السوري" بمباحثات مصالحة في بغداد". Elaph - إيلاف (in Arabic). Retrieved 23 October 2023. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  33. ^ Staff writer (2002). Jordan in Transition. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-312-29538-7.
  34. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  35. ^ "Dabour ... Halting normalization with the Zionist enemy is a Pan-Arab necessity". Ba'ath Message. Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region. 25 April 2010. p. 11. Archived from the original on 1 May 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  36. ^ "Jordan's Political Parties: Islamists, Leftists, Nationalists And Centrists". Cablegate. 20 May 2003. Archived from the original on 1 May 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  37. ^ Federal Research Division (2004). Syria: A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. p. 282. ISBN 978-1-4191-5022-7.
  38. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1998). Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 62. ISBN 0-312-21593-2.
  39. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1998). Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 149. ISBN 0-312-21593-2.
  40. ^ Hirst, David (2010). Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East. Nation Books. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-56858-422-5.
  41. ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1998). Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 179. ISBN 0-312-21593-2.
  42. ^ "March14 – March 8 MPs". NOW Lebanon. 11 March 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  43. ^ "Syrian PM praises Lebanon's Baath Party | News, Lebanon News". The Daily Star. 26 July 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  44. ^ "Factbox: What is the make-up of Lebanon's new parliament?". Reuters. 17 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  45. ^ "An Overview of Ba'athist tendencies in Mauritania" (PDF). The Moor Next Door. November 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  46. ^ "La Mauritanie dissout 76 partis politiques" [Mauritania dissolves 76 political parties]. Radio France Internationale (in French). 7 March 2019. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  47. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  48. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  49. ^ Federal Research Division (2004). Syria: A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-1-4191-5022-7.
  50. ^ Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (27 April 2018). "The South Damascus Campaign: Interview with Quwat al-Sa'iqa". Retrieved 29 April 2018.
  51. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  52. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  53. ^ Lain, Donald Ray (1989). Dictionary of the African Left: Parties, Movements and Groups. Dartmouth. pp. 58–60. ISBN 1-85521-014-2.
  54. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  55. ^ a b "حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي". Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  56. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  57. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  58. ^ Lane, Jan-Erik (2004). Constitutions and Political Theory. Manchester University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-7190-4648-3.
  59. ^ a b The World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. 2006. p. 256. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0.
  60. ^ F. Devlin, John (1976). "16: Military Ascendancy in Syria". The Baath Party: A History From its Origins to 1966. Stanford University, California: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 281–307. ISBN 978-0817965617.
  61. ^ a b c Federal Research Division (2004). Syria: A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-4191-5022-7.
  62. ^ Dishon (1973). Middle East Record 1968. John Wiley and Sons. p. 720. ISBN 0-470-21611-5.
  63. ^ a b Federal Research Division (2004). Syria: A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-4191-5022-7.
  64. ^ Moubayed, Sami M. (2006). Steel & Silk: Men and Women Who Shaped Syria 1900–2000. Cune Press. p. 272. ISBN 1-885942-40-0.
  65. ^ http://observatoiretunisien.org/upload/file/Boubakri(1).pdf[permanent dead link‍]
  66. ^ a b "Lawyer Linda Mohammed Resigns From Ba'ath Party In Yemen". nationalyemen.com. 3 March 2013. Archived from the original on 4 March 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  67. ^ "معلومات أساسية عن الأحزاب". yemen-nic.info. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
  68. ^ Almotamar Net. "Delegation of Syrian Baath Party arrives in Sana'a". Almotamar.net. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  69. ^ "حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  70. ^ "| صحافة نت". Sahafah.net. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  71. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  72. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)&oldid=1253255135"