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{{redirect|Arabic}} |
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{{Infobox Language|name=Arabic |
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|nativename=العربية ''{{ArabDIN|al-‘arabiyyah}}'' |
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|pronunciation=/alˌʕa.raˈbij.ja/ |
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|caption='''al-‘Arabiyyah''' in written Arabic ([[Naskh (script)|Naskh]] script) |
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|image=[[Image:Arabic albayancalligraphy.svg|200px]] |
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|states=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Palestinian Territories]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Yemen]] by a majority; it is also the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]]. |
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|region=[[Arab world]] |
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|speakers=Estimates of native speakers between 186 and 422 million <ref>[http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Three lists], [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arb Ethnologue], [http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576546/Arabic_Language.html Encarta], {{cite web |url=http://encarta.msn.com/media_701500404/Languages_Spoken_by_More_Than_10_Million_People.html |title=Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People |accessdate=2007-02-18 |publisher=Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006}}</ref>. According to [[Ethnologue]], 246 million including second language speakers, (1999 est). |
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|rank=2 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://encarta.msn.com/media_701500404/Languages_Spoken_by_More_Than_10_Million_People.html |title=Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People |accessdate=2007-02-18 |publisher=Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006}}</ref> to 6<ref>[http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Most Widely Spoken Languages<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> (native speakers) |
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|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |
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|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] |
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|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] |
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|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] |
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|script=[[Arabic alphabet]] |
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|nation=Official language of 25 countries, the third most after English and French<ref name=Wright>{{cite book|title=The New York Times Almanac 2002|author=John W. Wright|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1579583482|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=G81HonU81pAC&pg=RA4-PA492&dq=almanac+arabic&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=Oi3cBiQqn4ckF2QVKPnXMEffPio}}</ref>{{Collapsible list|| |
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{{flag|Algeria}}<br>{{flag|Bahrain}}<br>{{flag|Comoros}}<br>{{flag|Chad}}<br>{{flag|Djibouti}}<br>{{flag|Egypt}}<br>{{flag|Eritrea}}<br>{{flag|Iraq}}<br>{{flag|Israel}}<br>{{flag|Jordan}}<br>{{flag|Kuwait}}<br>{{flag|Lebanon}}<br>{{flag|Libya}}<br>{{flag|Mauritania}}<br>{{flag|Morocco}}<br>{{flag|Oman}}<br>{{flag|Qatar}} <br>{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<br>{{flag|Somalia}}<br>{{flag|Sudan}}<br>{{flag|Syria}}<br>{{flag|Tunisia}}<br>{{flag|United Arab Emirates}} (UAE)<br>{{flag|Yemen}} |
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{{flagicon|Palestinian Authority}} ([[Palestinian National Authority]])<br>{{flag|Western Sahara}} |
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{{flag|African Union}}(AU)<br>{{flag|Arab League}} <br>[[Image:Flag of OIC.svg|23px]] ([[Organisation of the Islamic Conference|OIC]])<br>{{flag|United Nations}}}} |
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|agency=[[Egypt]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo]]<br> |
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[[Syria]]: [[Arab Academy of Damascus]] (the oldest)<br> |
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[[Iraq]]: [[Iraqi Science Academy]]<br> |
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[[Sudan]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Khartum]]<br> |
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[[Morocco]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Rabat]] (the most active)<br> |
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[[Jordan]]: [[Jordan Academy of Arabic]]<br> |
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[[Libya]]: Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya<br> |
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[[Tunisia]]: [[Beit Al-Hikma Foundation]]<br> |
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[[Israel]]: Academy of the Arabic Language (first ever in a non-Arab country)[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3379498,00.html] |
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|iso1=ar|iso2=ara |
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|lc1=ara|ld1=Arabic (generic)<br/>''see [[varieties of Arabic]] for the individual codes'' |
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|ll1=none |
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|map=[[Image:Arabic speaking world.png]]<br/>Distribution of Arabic as sole official language (green) and one of several official languages (blue)}} |
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'''Arabic''' ({{lang|ar|الْعَرَبيّة}} ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿarabiyyah}}'' or just {{lang|ar|عَرَبيْ}} ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarabī}}''), in terms of the number of speakers, is the largest living member of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic language family]]. Classified as [[Central Semitic]], it is closely related to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and has its roots in a [[Proto-Semitic]] common ancestor. In [[ISO 639-3]], modern Arabic is classified as a [[macrolanguage]] with 27 [[varieties of Arabic|sub-languages]]. These varieties are spoken throughout the [[Arab world]], and [[Standard Arabic]] is widely studied and used throughout the [[Islamic world]]. |
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Modern Standard Arabic derives from [[Classical Arabic]], the only surviving member of the [[Old North Arabian]] dialect group, attested [[Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|epigraphically]] since the 6th century. It has been a [[literary language]] and the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]] since the 7th century. |
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Arabic has lent many words to other languages of the Islamic world, as [[Latin]] has contributed to most European languages. It has also borrowed from those languages, as well as Persian and Sanskrit from early contacts with their affiliated regions. During the [[Middle Ages]], Arabic was a major vehicle of culture, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy, with the result that many European languages have also borrowed numerous words from it. Arabic influence is especially strong in [[Arabic influence on the Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin|Portuguese]] due to both the proximity of European and Arab civilization and 700 years of [[caliphate]] government in the [[Iberian peninsula]] (see [[Al-Andalus]]). |
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== Literary and Modern Standard Arabic == |
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{{main|Literary Arabic}} |
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The term "Arabic" may refer to either [[literary Arabic]] (''{{Unicode|(al-)fuṣḥā}}'' الفصحى) or the many localized [[varieties of Arabic]] commonly called "colloquial Arabic." Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. Literary Arabic ({{lang|ar|اللغة العربية الفصحى}} [[DIN 31635|translit]]: {{ArabDIN|al-luġatu l-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā}} "the most eloquent Arabic language"), refers both to the language of present-day media across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]] and to the language of the [[Qur'an]]. (The expression ''media'' here includes most television and radio, and practically all written matter, including books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) [[Varieties of Arabic|"Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic]] refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are typically unwritten, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]]s and [[talk show]]s. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages. |
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The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]], which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic. When speaking with someone from the same country, many speakers switch back and forth between the two varieties of the language ([[code switching]]), sometimes even within the same sentence. When educated Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication. |
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Like other languages, literary Arabic continues to evolve. [[Classical Arabic]] (especially from the pre-Islamic to the Abbasid period, including Qur'anic Arabic) can be distinguished from [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (MSA) as used today. Classical Arabic is considered normative; modern authors attempt (with varying degrees of success) to follow the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by Classical grammarians (such as [[Sibawayh]]), and to use the vocabulary defined in Classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-Arab.) However, many modern terms would have been mysterious to a Classical author, whether taken from other languages (for example, فيلم ''film'') or coined from existing lexical resources (for example, هاتف ''hātif'' "telephone" = "caller"). Structural influence from foreign languages or from the colloquial varieties has also affected Modern Standard Arabic. For example, MSA texts sometimes use the format "A, B, C, and D" when listing things, whereas Classical Arabic prefers "A and B and C and D," and subject-initial sentences may be more common in MSA than in Classical Arabic. For these reasons, Modern Standard Arabic is generally treated separately in non-Arab sources. |
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==Influence of Arabic on other languages== |
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{{main|Influence of Arabic on other languages}} |
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The influence of Arabic has been most profound in Islamic countries. Arabic is a major source of vocabulary for languages as diverse as [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]] (especially the spoken variety), [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. For example, the Arabic word for ''book'' (/kitāb/) is used for "book" in all the languages listed, apart from Malay and Indonesian, where it specifically means "religious book." In addition, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] both have large numbers of Arabic loan words, and [[English language|English]] has quite a few. Other languages such as [[Maltese language|Maltese]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language Maltese language - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and [[Kinubi]] derive from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammar rules. |
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The terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber {{Unicode|''taẓallit''}} "prayer" < [[salat]]), academic terms (like [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] ''mentiq'' "logic"), economic items (like English "sugar") to [[placeholder]]s (like Spanish ''fulano'' "so-and-so") and everyday conjunctions (like Urdu ''lekin'' "but".) Most Berber varieties (such as [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as ''salat'' 'prayer' and ''imam'' 'prayer leader.' In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Urdu/Hindi entered through Persian, and many older Arabic loanwords in [[Hausa language|Hausa]] were borrowed from [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]. |
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Many words in [[English language|English]] and other European languages are derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Among them are commonly-used words like "[[sugar]]" (''sukkar''), "[[cotton]]" (''{{unicode|quṭn}}'') and "magazine" (''[[makhzen|{{ArabDIN|maḫāzin}}]]''). English words more recognizably of Arabic origin include "[[algebra]]", "[[alcohol]]", "[[alchemy]]", "[[alkali]]" and "[[zenith]]." Some words in common use, such as "intention" and "information", were originally [[calque]]s of Arabic philosophical terms. {{Seealso|list of Arabic loanwords in English}}. |
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==Arabic and Islam== |
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[[Image:Learning Arabic calligraphy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An example of a text written in [[Arabic calligraphy]].]] |
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Arabic is the language of the [[Qur'an]]. Traditionally, [[Muslims]] deem it impossible to translate the Qur'an in a way that would reflect its exact meaning. Some schools of thought maintain that it should not be translated at all. Arabic is often associated with [[Islam]], but it is also spoken by [[Arab Christians]], Arab [[Druze]], [[Mizrahi Jews]] and Iraqi [[Mandaean]]s. |
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Most of the world's [[Muslims]] do not speak Arabic as their native language but can read the script and recite the words of religious texts. |
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==History== |
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Modern Arabic is considered to be part of the Arabo-Canaanite sub-branch of the [[Central Semitic languages|central group]] of [[West Semitic]] languages.<ref name=Bishop>{{cite web|title=A History of the Arabic Language|author=Brian Bishop|publisher=The Center for Arabic Culture|date=April 1998|From ''"Arabic." The World's Major Languages.''' Alan S. Kaye. Bernard Comrie. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. 664-685.|url=?}}</ref> While Arabic is not the oldest of the Semitic languages, it shares many features with the common ancestor for all Semitic languages in the Afro-Asiatic group of languages, [[Proto-Semitic]] whose phonological, morphological, and syntactic features have been determined by linguists.<ref name=Bishop2>{{cite web|title=A History of the Arabic Language|author=Brian Bishop|publisher=The Center for Arabic Culture|date=April 1998|From the Preface of Satakari Mukhopadhyaya's ''A Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language''. Translated by Mortimer Sloper Howell. Delhi, India: Gian Publishing House, 1986|url=?}}</ref> Many linguists consider Arabic to be the most conservative of the modern Semitic languages because of how completely it preserves the features of Proto-Semitic.<ref name=Bishop2>{{cite web|title=A History of the Arabic Language|author=Brian Bishop|publisher=The Center for Arabic Culture|date=April 1998|From the Preface of Satakari Mukhopadhyaya's ''A Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language''. Translated by Mortimer Sloper Howell. Delhi, India: Gian Publishing House, 1986}}</ref> |
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The earliest texts in [[proto-language|Proto]]-Arabic, or [[Ancient North Arabian]], are the [[Al-Hasa|Hasaean]] inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, from the 8th century BC, written not in the modern Arabic alphabet, nor in its [[Nabataean]] ancestor, but in variants of the [[epigraphic]] South Arabian ''[[South Arabian alphabet|musnad]]''. These are followed by 6th-century BC [[Lihyanite]] texts from southeastern Saudi Arabia and the [[Thamudic]] texts found throughout Arabia and the [[Sinai]], and not actually connected with [[Thamud]]. Later come the [[Safaitic]] inscriptions beginning in the 1st century BC, and the many Arabic personal names attested in [[Nabataean]] inscriptions (which are, however, written in Aramaic). From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from [[Qaryat al-Faw]] (near [[Sulayyil]]) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered "Proto-Arabic", but Pre-Classical Arabic. |
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By the fourth century AD, the Arab kingdoms of the [[Lakhmids]] in southern [[Iraq]], the [[Ghassanids]] in southern [[Syria]] the [[Kindite]] Kingdom emerged in Central Arabia. Their courts were responsible for some notable examples of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and for some of the few surviving [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] in the Arabic alphabet. |
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==Dialects and descendants== |
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{{Main|Varieties of Arabic}} |
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"Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken varieties of Arabic used throughout the [[Arab world]], which differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African dialects]] and those of the Middle East, followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] dialects. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic. In particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding North Africans (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern—especially Egyptian—films and other media). |
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One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi ''aku'', Levantine ''fīh'', and North African ''kayən'' all mean "there is", and all come from classical Arabic forms (''yakūn'', ''fīhi'', ''kā'in'' respectively), but now sound very different. |
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The major dialect groups are: |
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* [[Egyptian Arabic]] مصري : Spoken by about 79 million people in Egypt and perhaps the most widely understood variety, due to the popularity of Egyptian-made films and TV shows |
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* [[Maghrebi Arabic]] مغربي ([[Algerian Arabic]], [[Moroccan Arabic]], [[Tunisian Arabic]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]] and western [[Libyan Arabic]]) The Moroccan and Algerian dialects are each spoken by about 20 million people. |
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* [[Levantine Arabic]] شامي (Western [[Syrian Arabic|Syrian]], [[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese]], [[Palestinian Arabic|Palestinian]], western Jordanian and [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]]) |
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* [[Iraqi Arabic]] عراقي (and [[Khuzestani Arabic]]) - with significant differences between the more Arabian-like ''gilit''-dialects of the south and the more conservative ''qeltu''-dialects of the northern cities |
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* [[East Arabian Arabic]] بحريني (Eastern Saudi Arabia, Western Iraq, Eastern Syrian, Jordanian and parts of Oman) |
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* [[Gulf Arabic]] خليجي (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, and Oman) |
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Other varieties include: |
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* {{unicode|[[Hassaniya|Ḥassānīya]]}} حساني (in Mauritania, Mali and western Sahara) |
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* [[Sudanese Arabic]] سوداني (with a [[dialect continuum]] into Chad) |
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* [[Hijazi Arabic]] حجازي (western Saudi Arabia) |
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* [[Najdi Arabic]] نجدي (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia) |
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* [[Yemeni Arabic]] يمني (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia) |
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* [[Andalusi Arabic]] أندلسي (Iberia until 17th century) |
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* [[Siculo Arabic]] صقلي (Sicily, South Italy until 14th century) |
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* [[Maltese language|Maltese]] مالطي, which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of [[Malta]], is the only one to have established itself as a fully separate language, with independent literary norms. Apart from its phonology, Maltese bears considerable similarity to urban varieties of [[Tunisian Arabic]], however in the course of history, the language has adopted numerous loanwords, phonetic and phonological features, and even some grammatical patterns, from [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], and [[English language|English]]. It is also the only Semitic tongue written in the [[Latin alphabet]]. |
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==Sounds== |
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{{main|Arabic phonology}} |
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{{IPA notice}} |
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The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of [[Standard Arabic]]. There are minor variations from country to country. |
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===Vowels=== |
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Arabic has three vowels, with long and short forms of {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, and {{IPA|/u/}}. There are also two [[diphthongs]]: {{IPA|/aj/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}}. |
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===Consonants=== |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |
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|+ '''Standard Arabic consonant phonemes'''</CAPTION> |
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|- |
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! rowspan="2" COLSPAN=2 | |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Bilabial]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Labiodental|Labio-<br>dental]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Interdental|Inter-dental]] |
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! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental (incl. alveolar)]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post-<br>alveolar]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyn-<BR>geal]] |
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! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | plain |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]] |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[stop consonant|Plosive]] |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]] |
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| |
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| || || {{rtl-lang|ar|ت }} {{IPA|t̪}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ط}} {{IPA|t̪ˁ}} || || || {{rtl-lang|ar|ك}} {{IPA|k}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ق }} {{IPA|q}} |
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| || <font style="text-decoration: none">[[Hamza|ء {{IPA|ʔ}}]]</font> |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] |
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| {{rtl-lang|ar|ب}} {{IPA|b}} || || || {{rtl-lang|ar|د}} {{IPA|d̪}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ض}} {{IPA|d̪ˁ}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ج}} {{IPA|dʒ}}¹ || || || |
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| || |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[Fricative]] |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]] |
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| |
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| ف {{IPA|f}} || ث {{IPA|θ}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|س}} {{IPA|s}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ص}} {{IPA|sˁ}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ش}} {{IPA|ʃ}} || || {{rtl-lang|ar|خ}} {{IPA|x}} || || {{rtl-lang|ar|ح}} {{IPA|ħ}} || {{rtl-lang|ar|ه}} {{IPA|h}} |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] |
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| || || ذ {{IPA|ð}} || ز {{IPA|z}} || ظ {{IPA|ðˁ}} || || || غ {{IPA|ɣ}} || |
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| ع {{IPA|ʕ}} || |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |
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| م {{IPA|m}} || || || ن {{IPA|n}} || |
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| || || || |
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| rowspan="2" | |
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| rowspan="2" | |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] |
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| || || |
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| ل {{IPA|l}} ² || || || || || |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] |
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| |
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| || || ر {{IPA|r}} || || || || || || |
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| |
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|- |
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! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Approximant]] |
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| و {{IPA|w}} || |
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| || || || || ي {{IPA|j}} || || |
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| || |
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|} |
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See [[Arabic alphabet]] for explanations on the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] phonetic symbols found in this chart. |
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# {{IPA|[dʒ]}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the [[Levant]], it is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʒ]}}. |
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# {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[lˁ]}} only in {{IPA|/ʔalːaːh/}}, the name of God, i.e. [[Allah]], when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarized: ''bismi l-lāh'' {{IPA|/bismilːaːh/}}). |
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# {{IPA|/ʕ/}} is usually a phonetic [[approximant consonant|approximant]]. |
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# In many varieties, {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are actually [[epiglottal]] {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} (despite what is reported in many earlier works). |
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# {{IPA|/x/}} is considered to be a uvular sound ({{IPA|/χ/}}) by some linguists{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. |
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Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" {{IPA|/tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ/}} are both [[velarization|velarized]] {{IPA|[tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, ðˠ]}} and [[pharyngealization|pharyngealised]] {{IPA|[tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ]}}. This simultaneous velarization and pharyngealization is deemed "Retracted Tongue Root" by phonologists.<ref>Thelwall, 52</ref> In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, {{IPA|/dˁ/}} is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, ‹{{unicode|ḍ}}›. |
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Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: ''qabala'' "he accepted" vs. ''qabbala'' "he kissed." |
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===Syllable structure=== |
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Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article ''the'', ''[[al-]]'' (used when starting an utterance) or ''_l'' (when following a word), e.g. ''baytu –l mudiir'' “house (of) the director”, which becomes ''bay-tul-mu-diir'' when divided syllabically. By itself, "the director" would be pronounced {{IPA|/al mudiːr/}}. |
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===Stress=== |
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Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length<!-- , though phonemic, and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility -->. The basic rules are: |
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*Only one of the last three syllables may be stressed. |
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*Given this restriction, the last "superheavy" syllable (containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant) is stressed. |
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*If there is no such syllable, the pre-final syllable is stressed if it is 'heavy.' Otherwise, the first allowable syllable is stressed. |
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*In Standard Arabic, a final long vowel may not be stressed. (This restriction does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen.) |
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For example: ''ki-TAA-bun'' "book", ''KAA-ti-bun'' "writer", ''MAK-ta-bun'' "desk", ''ma-KAA-ti-bu'' "desks", ''mak-TA-ba-tun'' "library", ''KA-ta-buu'' (MSA) "they wrote" = ''KA-ta-bu'' (dialect), ''ka-ta-BUU-hu'' (MSA) "they wrote it" = ''ka-ta-BUU'' (dialect), ''ka-TA-ba-taa'' (MSA) "they (dual, fem) wrote", ''ka-TAB-tu'' (MSA) "I wrote" = ''ka-TABT'' (dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: ''ma-JAL-la'' "magazine", ''ma-HALL'' "palace". |
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Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo ([[Egyptian Arabic]]) dialect, for example, a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence ''mad-RA-sa'' "school", ''qaa-HI-ra'' "Cairo". In the Arabic of [[Sana]], stress is often retracted: ''BAY-tayn'' "two houses", ''MAA-sat-hum'' "their table", ''ma-KAA-tiib'' "desks", ''ZAA-rat-hiin'' "sometimes", ''mad-RA-sat-hum'' "their school". (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.) |
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===Dialectal variations=== |
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{{Main|Varieties of Arabic}} |
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In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic {{IPA|[v]}} is used in the Maghrebi dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic {{IPA|[p]}} became {{IPA|[f]}} extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]) distinguish between {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[b]}}. |
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Interdental fricatives ({{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}) are rendered as stops {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} in some dialects (such as Levantine, Egyptian, and much of the Maghreb); some of these dialects render them as {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes {{IPA|[dˁ]}} and {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use {{IPA|[dˁ]}} exclusively, while those with such fricatives use {{IPA|[ðˁ]}}. Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} is rendered as {{IPA|[zˁ]}} (in the Middle East) or {{IPA|[dˁ]}} (in North Africa) in dialects without interdental fricatives. |
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Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular stops {{IPA|/q/}}, {{IPA|/ʤ/}} ([[Proto-Semitic]] /g/), and {{IPA|/k/}}: |
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*/q/ retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the [[Maghreb]]. But it is rendered as a voiced velar stop {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt, much of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan); as a voiced uvular constrictive {{IPA|[ʁ]}} in Sudanese Arabic; and as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in several prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as {{IPA|[k]}}, as do Shia Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to {{IPA|[ʤ]}} or {{IPA|[ʒ]}}. Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for /q/ maintain the /q/ pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language. |
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*{{IPA|/ʤ/}} retains its pronunciation in Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula, but is pronounced /g/ in Cairo and parts of Yemen, {{IPA|/ʒ/}} in Morocco and the Levant, and /j/ in some words in much of Gulf Arabic. |
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*{{IPA|/k/}} usually retains its original pronunciation, but is palatalized to {{IPA|/ʧ/}} in many words in [[Palestine]], Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula. Often a distinction is made between the suffixes /-ak/ (you, masc.) and /-ik/ (you, fem.), which become {{IPA|/-ak/}} and {{IPA|/-iʧ/}}, respectively. In [[Sana]] Arabic, /-ik/ is pronounced {{IPA|/-iʃ/}}. |
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==Grammar== |
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{{Main|Arabic grammar}} |
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Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical [[noun case|cases]] ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], and [[genitive case|genitive]] [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, dual and plural); two [[gender (grammar)|genders]] (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and [[Status constructus|construct]]). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by [[suffix]]ed short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by /-at/, which is reduced to /-ah/ or /-a/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the [[sound plural]]) or internal modification (the [[broken plural]]). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are [[prefix]]ed by the definite article /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/ (which is also referred to as [[nunation]] or [[tanwīn]]). |
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Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are [[conjugate]]d in two major paradigms (termed [[perfective]] and [[imperfective]], or [[past]] and [[non-past]]); two [[grammatical voice|voice]]s (active and passive); and five [[grammatical mood|mood]]s in the imperfective ([[indicative]], [[imperative]], [[subjunctive]], [[grammatical mood#jussive|jussive]] and [[grammatical mood#energetic|energetic]]). There are also two [[participle]]s (active and passive) and a [[verbal noun]], but no [[infinitive]]. As indicated by the differing terms for the two tense systems, there is some disagreement over whether the distinction between the two systems should be most accurately characterized as [[Grammatical tense|tense]], [[aspect]] or a combination of the two. The [[perfective aspect]] is constructed using fused suffixes that combine person, number and gender in a single morpheme, while the [[imperfective]] aspect is constructed using a combination of [[prefix]]es (primarily encoding person) and [[suffix]]es (primarily encoding gender and number). The moods other than imperative are primarily marked by suffixes (/u/ for indicative, /a/ for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, /an/ for energetic). The imperative has the endings of the jussive but lacks any prefixes. The passive is marked through internal vowel changes. Plural forms for the verb are only used when the subject is not mentioned, or is preceding it, and the feminine singular is used for all non-human plurals. |
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[[Adjective]]s in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the /-ah/ or /-at/ suffix. |
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[[Pronoun]]s in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and [[enclitic]]s. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (/-ni/) and for nouns or prepositions (/-ī/ after consonants, /-ya/ after vowels). |
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Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice-versa. |
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The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. Modern Standard Arabic maintains the grammatical distinctions of Literary Arabic except that the energetic mood is almost never used; in addition, Modern Standard Arabic sometimes drop the final short vowels that indicate case and mood. |
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As in many other Semitic languages, Arabic verb formation is based on a (usually) [[Triliteral|triconsonantal]] [[root (linguistics)|root]], which is not a word in itself but contains the semantic core. The consonants '''{{ArabDIN|k-t-b}}''', for example, indicate 'write', '''{{ArabDIN|q-r-ʾ}}''' indicate 'read', '''{{ArabDIN|ʾ-k-l}}''' indicate 'eat', etc. Words are formed by supplying the root with a vowel structure and with affixes. (Traditionally, Arabic grammarians have used the root '''{{ArabDIN|f-ʿ-l}}''' 'do' as a template to discuss word formation.) From any particular root, up to fifteen different verbs can be formed, each with its own template; these are referred to by Western scholars as "form I", "form II", ... up through "form XV". These forms, and their associated participles and verbal nouns, are the primary means of forming vocabulary in Arabic. Forms XI to XV are extremely rare. |
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==Writing system== |
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{{Main|Arabic alphabet}} |
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The Arabic alphabet derives from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] script (through [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]] and then [[Nabatean alphabet|Nabatean]]), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern version of the alphabet—in particular, the ''fa'' and ''qaf'' had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the [[Maghreb]], and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]s) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other [[Semitic languages]] (except for the [[Latin alphabet|Latin-written]] [[Maltese language|Maltese]], and the languages with the [[Ge'ez script]]), is written from right to left. There are several styles of script, notably [[Naskh (script)|Naskh]] which is used in print and by computers, and [[Ruq'ah]] which is commonly used in [[handwriting]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Writing Arabic: A Linguistic Approach, from Sounds to Script |author=Hanna, Sami A., Naguib Greis |date=1972 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=p. 2}}</ref> |
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===Calligraphy=== |
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{{main|Arabic calligraphy}} |
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After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around 786, by [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]], many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. |
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<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kufi.png|Kufic font]] --> |
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Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the [[Latin alphabet]], Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Qur'an, a [[Hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]], in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are [[Hassan Massoudy]] and [http://arabworld.nitle.org/gallery.php?module_id=7 Khaled Al Saa’i]. |
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===Transliteration=== |
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{{further|[[Arabic transliteration]], [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]}} |
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There are a number of different standards of [[Arabic transliteration]]: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the [[Latin alphabet]]. There are multiple conflicting motivations for transliteration. Scholarly systems are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally supplying making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. These systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]]al marks such as "š" for sound equivalently written ''sh'' in English. In some cases, the ''sh'' or ''kh'' sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate ''s'' and ''h'' sounds or ''k'' and ''h'' sounds, respectively. (Compare ''gashouse'' to ''gash''.) At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific systems often use [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (like ''sh'' and ''kh''), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. Such systems may be intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists to intuitively pronounce Arabic names and phrases. An example of such a system is the [[Bahá'í orthography]]. A third type of transliteration seeks to represent an equivalent of the Arabic spelling with Latin letters, for use by Arabic speakers when Arabic writing is not available (for example, when using an ASCII communication device). |
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An example is the system used by the US military, [[Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System]] or SATTS, which represents each Arabic letter with a unique symbol in the ASCII range to provide a one-to-one mapping from Arabic to ASCII and back. This system, while facilitating typing on English keyboards, presents its own ambiguities and disadvantages. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the [[Arab world]], such as [[personal computers]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[Bulletin board system]]s, [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the [[Latin alphabet]] only, and some of them still do not have the [[Arabic alphabet]] as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as [[IM Arabic]]. |
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To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", ''ayn''. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or ''daal'', may be represented by '''d'''. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as '''D'''. |
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===Numerals=== |
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{{main|Arabic numerals}} |
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In most of present-day North Africa, the [[Western Arabic numerals]] (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However in [[Egypt]] and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the [[Eastern Arabic numerals]] ({{lang|ar|٠.١.٢.٣.٤.٥.٦.٧.٨.٩}}) are in use. The lowest-valued digit appears on the right, so the order of digits on the page is the same as in Latin script; this reflects the way in which Arabic numbers are traditionally read (i.e. increasing order, so 1234 is "four and thirty and two hundred and one thousand"), though this reading has declined of late. Also sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right. |
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==Language-standards regulators== |
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[[Academy of the Arabic Language]] is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed in Arab countries. The most active are in [[Damascus]] and [[Cairo]]. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. |
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==Studying Arabic== |
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Arabic language interests millions of non-Arabic speakers to learn it to different levels, mainly because it is the language of their holy book, the [[Quran]], and all [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic|Islamic terms]] are Arabic. Arabic has been taught in many [[Elementary school|elementary]] and [[Secondary school|secondary ]]schools, especially Muslim schools, worldwide. Many universities in the world today have classes for studying Arabic as a Foreign Language, as part of their [[Foreign Languages|foreign languages]], [[Middle Eastern studies]], [[religious studies]], [[area studies]] departments, and even standalone [[Arabic Language|Arabic language]] departments. Many [[Arabic language school]]s exist today to assist in gaining Arabic language skills outside [[Academic department|academic education]]. Most of the Arabic [[language school]]s are located in the [[Arab world]] and some [[Muslim world]] countries. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or [[Arabic language school]] classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the [[Internet]] provide online classes for all levels as a distance education means. |
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==See also== |
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{{Wikiversity}} |
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{{InterWiki|code=ar}} |
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{{Wikibooks|Arabic}} |
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* [[Varieties of Arabic]] |
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* {{Unicode|[[Iʿrāb]]}} |
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* [[Arabic literature]] |
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* [[Arabic alphabet]] |
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* [[Arabic calligraphy]] |
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* [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic]] |
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* [[List of Arabic loanwords in English]] |
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* [[List of replaced loanwords in Turkish]] |
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* [[List of French words of Arabic origin]] |
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* [[List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin]] |
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* [[Arabic influence on Spanish]] |
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* [[Greeting|List of greetings in various languages]] |
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* [[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]] |
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* [[Arabist]] |
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==References== |
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*Edward William Lane, ''[[Arabic English Lexicon]]'', 1893, 2003 reprint: ISBN 81-206-0107-6, 3064 pages ([http://www.studyquran.co.uk/LLhome.htm online edition]). |
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*R. Traini, ''Vocabolario di arabo'', I.P.O., Rome |
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*Hans Wehr, ''[[Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart]]: Arabisch-Deutsch'', Harassowitz, 1952, 1985 reprint: ISBN 3-447-01998-0, 1452 pages; English translation: Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, Harassowitz, 1961. |
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===Phonology=== |
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*{{cite book |last= Thelwall|first= Robin|coauthors= M. Akram Sa'adeddin|title= Handbook of the International Phonetic Association|year= 2003|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, UK|id= ISBN 0-521-63751-1|chapter= Arabic}} |
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===Grammar=== |
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* Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997). See online versions: [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=36] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=35] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113] |
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* Mumisa, Michael, ''Introducing Arabic'', Goodword Books (2003). |
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* Haywood and Nahmad, ''A new Arabic grammar'': London 1965, ISBN 0 85331 585 X |
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* Laura Veccia Vaglieri, ''Grammatica teorico-pratica della lingua araba'', I.P.O., Rome. |
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===Dialectology=== |
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*[[George Grigore]], (2007). ''L'arabe parlé à Mardin. Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique''. Bucharest: Editura Universitatii din Bucuresti, ISBN (13) 978-973-737-249-9 [http://www.arc-news.com/read.php?lang=en&id_articol=1059] |
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===Notes=== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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===General=== |
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::::''For links related to script, see [[Arabic alphabet]]'' |
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*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17 "The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh] |
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*[http://transliteration.org/quran/Pronunciation/Letters/TashP.htm Arabic language pronunciation applet] with audio samples |
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*[http://arabic.tripod.com Arabic Grammar Online] |
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*[http://sheepoo.wordpress.com Classical Arabic Blog] |
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====Online Arabic Lexicons==== |
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*[http://www.baheth.info/ Free Online Arabic Lexicon] |
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====Online Courses==== |
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*[http://www.declan-software.com/arabic/ Arabic Language Learning Software] |
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*[http://www.madinaharabic.com/ Free Comprehensive Arabic Language Course: MadinahArabic.com] |
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*[http://www.arabicpod.net/ Downloadable Arabic lessons for all levels: ArabicPod.net] |
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*[http://fsi-language-courses.com/Arabic.aspx Public Domain Arabic Language Courses] |
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*[http://arabic.speak7.com/ Free Online Arabic Course: Speak7.com] |
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*[http://www.languageguide.org/arabic/grammar/ Arabic Grammar Online (with audio pronunciations of all words): LanguageGuide.org] |
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*[http://fr.youtube.com/profile?user=Languages1001 Learn Arabic vocabulary with videos] |
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*[http://www.arabicpod.net/learnarabic Learn Arabic with ArabicPod] |
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*[http://areg.amaksoud.com/Arabic Learn Arabic] |
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* [http://arabic.images.free.fr/index.php Arabic language with images] |
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====Online Arabic keyboards==== |
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*[http://www.arabic-keyboard.org online Arabic keyboard ]to type Arabic characters on computers which do not have a keyboard for typing the Arabic alphabet. |
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*[http://arab.sourceforge.net Arabic Keyboard based on QWERTY] (ISLAM-91) |
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*[http://www.google.com/ig/directory?q=arabickeyboard&url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/arabickeyboard.xml igoogle Arabic keyboard gadget] |
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*[http://www.muftah-alhuruf.com Muftah-Alhuruf.com: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system.] |
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*[http://arabic-radio-tv.com/keyboard.html Arabic Keyboard لوحة المفاتيح العربية] |
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===Dictionaries=== |
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*[http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=34866&package_id=93898 Free, open source English-Arabic wordlist/dictionary project] by [[Arabeyes]] |
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*[http://old.almisbar.com/salam_trans.html Commercial English-Arabic online translation service] |
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*[http://dictionary.sakhr.com Arabic dictionaries] |
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*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?l=Arabic Collection of Arabic bilingual dictionaries] |
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*[http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm "A E D Arabic Etymological Dictionary" by Andras Rajki] |
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{{Official UN languages}} |
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{{Working AU languages}} |
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{{Modern Semitic languages}} |
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{{VarietiesofArabic}} |
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{{Semitic languages}} |
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[[Category:Arab]] |
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[[Category:Arabic language| ]] |
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[[Category:Arabic language regulators]] |
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[[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages]] |
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[[Category:Semitic languages]] |
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[[Category:Central Semitic languages]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Cameroon]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Eritrea]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Algeria]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Bahrain]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Iraq]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Israel]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Jordan]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Kuwait]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Lebanon]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Libya]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Mauritania]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Morocco]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Oman]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Qatar]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Saudi Arabia]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Somalia]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Sudan]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Syria]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Tunisia]] |
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[[Category:Languages of the United Arab Emirates]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Yemen]] |
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{{Link FA|ms}} |
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[[af:Arabies]] |
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[[als:Arabische Sprache]] |
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[[am:ዓረብኛ]] |
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[[ang:Arabisc sprǣc]] |
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[[ar:لغة عربية]] |
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[[an:Idioma arabe]] |
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[[arc:ܠܫܢܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ]] |
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[[frp:Arabo]] |
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[[ast:Idioma Árabe]] |
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[[az:Ərəb dili]] |
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[[bn:আরবি ভাষা]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:A-la-pek-gí]] |
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[[map-bms:Basa Arab]] |
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[[bcl:Arabe]] |
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[[bs:Arapski jezik]] |
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[[bg:Арабски език]] |
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[[ca:Àrab]] |
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[[cv:Арап чĕлхи]] |
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[[ceb:Arabiko]] |
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[[cs:Arabština]] |
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[[cy:Arabeg]] |
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[[da:Arabisk (sprog)]] |
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[[de:Arabische Sprache]] |
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[[dv:ޢަރަބި]] |
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[[dsb:Arabska rěc]] |
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[[et:Araabia keel]] |
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[[el:Αραβική γλώσσα]] |
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[[es:Idioma árabe]] |
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[[eo:Araba lingvo]] |
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[[eu:Arabiera]] |
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[[fa:عربی]] |
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[[ga:Araibis]] |
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[[gl:Lingua árabe]] |
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[[zh-classical:阿拉伯語]] |
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[[ko:아랍어]] |
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[[haw:‘Ōlelo ‘Alapia]] |
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[[hy:Արաբերեն]] |
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[[hi:अरबी भाषा]] |
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[[hsb:Arabšćina]] |
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[[hr:Arapski jezik]] |
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[[io:Arabiana linguo]] |
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[[id:Bahasa Arab]] |
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[[ia:Lingua arabe]] |
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[[iu:ᐊᕋᕕ/aravi]] |
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[[is:Arabíska]] |
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[[it:Lingua araba]] |
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[[he:ערבית]] |
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[[jv:Basa Arab]] |
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[[kn:ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ]] |
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[[ka:არაბული ენა]] |
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[[kw:Arabek]] |
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[[sw:Kiarabu]] |
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[[kg:Kilabu]] |
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[[ku:Zimanê erebî]] |
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[[la:Lingua Arabica]] |
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[[lv:Arābu valoda]] |
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[[lt:Arabų kalba]] |
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[[lij:Lengua àraba]] |
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[[li:Arabisch]] |
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[[ln:Liarabi]] |
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[[hu:Arab nyelv]] |
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[[mk:Арапски јазик]] |
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[[ml:അറബി ഭാഷ]] |
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[[ms:Bahasa Arab]] |
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[[nah:Arabitlahtōlli]] |
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[[nl:Arabisch]] |
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[[new:अरबी भाषा]] |
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[[ja:アラビア語]] |
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[[ce:Іаьрбийн мотт]] |
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[[pih:Erabek]] |
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[[no:Arabisk]] |
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[[nn:Arabisk språk]] |
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[[nrm:Arabe]] |
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[[oc:Arabi]] |
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[[nds:Araabsche Spraak]] |
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[[pl:Język arabski]] |
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[[pt:Língua árabe]] |
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[[crh:Arap tili]] |
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[[ro:Limba arabă]] |
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[[qu:Arabya simi]] |
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[[ru:Арабский язык]] |
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[[se:Arábagiella]] |
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[[sq:Gjuha arabe]] |
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[[scn:Lingua àrabba]] |
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[[simple:Arabic language]] |
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[[sk:Arabčina]] |
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[[cu:Аравьскъ ѩзыкъ]] |
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[[sl:Arabščina]] |
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[[sr:Арапски језик]] |
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[[sh:Arapski jezik]] |
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[[su:Basa Arab]] |
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[[fi:Arabian kieli]] |
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[[sv:Arabiska]] |
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[[tl:Wikang Arabe]] |
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[[ta:அரபு மொழி]] |
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[[kab:Taɛrabt]] |
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[[tt:Ğäräp tele]] |
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[[th:ภาษาอาหรับ]] |
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[[vi:Tiếng Ả Rập]] |
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[[tg:Забони арабӣ]] |
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[[tr:Arapça]] |
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[[uk:Арабська мова]] |
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[[ur:عربی]] |
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[[wa:Arabe]] |
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[[diq:Erebki]] |
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[[bat-smg:Arabu kalba]] |
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[[zh:阿拉伯语]] |
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Revision as of 15:07, 4 April 2008
YO!!!!!!! HA HA