Jump to content

College health

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Skorton Center for Health Initiatives at Cornell University

College health is a desired outcome created by a constellation of services, programs and policies directed at advancing the health and wellbeing of individuals enrolled in an institution of higher education, while also addressing and improving both population health and community health. Many colleges and universities worldwide apply both health promotion and health care as processes to achieve key performance indicators in college health. The variety of healthcare services provided by any one institution range from first aid stations employing a single nurse to large, accredited, multi-specialty ambulatory healthcare clinics with hundreds of employees.[1] These services, programs and policies require a multidisciplinary team, the healthcare services alone include physicians, physician assistants, administrators, nurses, nurse practitioners, mental health professionals, health educators, athletic trainers, dietitians and nutritionists, and pharmacists. Some of the healthcare services extend to include massage therapists and other holistic health care professionals.[1] While currently changing, the vast majority of college health services are set up as cost centers or service units rather than as parts of academic departments or health care delivery enterprises.[2]

Ever increasing levels of college health often requires comprehensive environmental management, the coordination of resources, and institutional accountability for addressing the negative health impacts from alcohol use disorder and other substance abuse, mental illnesses such as depression and general anxiety disorders, sexual assault and discrimination among others.[3][4] The creation of innovative strategies to address the behavioral determinants of health among post-secondary students continues to pose challenges for institutions worldwide.[5]

Common health concerns of college and university students

[edit]
Building E23 (right) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology houses its health services.

Distress

[edit]
Further information: Suicide in colleges in the United States

A common college health key performance indicator relates to levels and the management of stress. Distress is the a negative result from the body's adaptation to change. A post-secondary education contains both distress and eustress. Many institutions of higher education have a reputation for being high-stress environments.[6][7] Throughout college or university, students often experience increased academic-related expectations, as well as a heightened level of overall responsibility that can adversely affects a student's wellbeing.[8][6][7]

Likewise, students in post-secondary are often expected to balance social, financial, personal and professional responsibilities, while maintaining a strong academic performance.[8][7] As a result, students in post-secondary often experience an increase in their overall stress level, compounded by a decreased perception of their own quality of life.[6] With stress being a common aspect of students’ academic experiences, the correlation between stress and compromised quality of life has become an area of increasing concern in post-secondary.[6] In recent studies, stress has been shown to contribute to the formation of maladaptive coping strategies in post-secondary students, which can subsequently increase one's risk for developing adverse health complications throughout college or university, including depression.[6] Additionally, factors such as physical and mental exhaustion, along with decreased sleep performance as a result of stress at university or college can be a major detriment to a student's perceived life satisfaction.[6]

Academic

[edit]

Post-secondary students experience stress from a variety of sources in their daily life, including academics.[6][7] In a 2017 American College Health Association report, 47.5% of post-secondary students claimed that they considered their academic stress to be 'traumatic or very difficult to handle.’[9] Disturbed sleep patterns, social problems, and homesickness are all major factors that can increase a student's perceived level of stress, including academic stress.[6][10]

Academic competition is another major source of stress in post-secondary students' lives.[11][12] High levels of colleague competitiveness has been reported to have a positive correlation with depression and anxiety in post-secondary students.[11][13] Furthermore, while competition in academic environments can often be a perceived as a strong motivator to students, overall evidence suggests that it can also contribute to unhealthy levels of stress in an individual.[11]

Learning how to develop effective strategies to manage personal stress in an academic setting can therefore help protect one against the risk of developing health complications in post-secondary.[14] Yoga, breathing-techniques, and mindfulness interventions are all practices that have been proven to reduce stress among college students.[14] Specifically, cortisol in students who engage in cognitive- and behavioral-based techniques has been proven to decrease post-intervention.[15] Furthermore, studies suggest exercise and physical activity may have a protective effect against stress in post-secondary students.[16]

Bullying
[edit]

A 2020 survey found that 43% of academic researchers were harassed or bullied at work.[17] Many respondents claimed that their work environment hindered research.

Personal

[edit]

Intra-personal distresses, including perceived concerns relating to body-image and self-esteem, are common in adolescence.[18] Furthermore, unhealthy body-image has been associated with a number of negative health complications, notably depression and disordered eating behaviors.[18] Post-secondary institutions have therefore become widely recognized as ideal grounds for implementing evidence-based health interventions that provide students the opportunity to manage and improve their overall self-image.[18]

Financial stress is also a major burden on students’ health and wellbeing, as the academic term employs the expenditure of one's financial resources “without guarantees of a satisfactory return."[6] In a 2019 report by The College Board on "Trends in College Pricing," the average tuition for full-time students attending a four-year-long post-secondary institution in the 2019–2020 academic year was about $12,700.[19] With the costs of post-secondary education growing significantly over the last decade, many students are choosing to take out student loans to support their education.[20] As a significant source of stress, student debt and financial instability have been linked to poorer general health outcomes and higher rates of depressive symptoms in young adults.[21] Personal debt has also been associated with increased drug and alcohol use.[21]

Adverse effects on health

[edit]

The mental health of students can sometimes decline when attending college. Therefore, this increased stress has highlighted the need for mental health and counseling services available to students on campus.[22][23][24] According to the American Psychological Association (APA), there was a 30% rise in students seeking psychological healthcare services on American campuses between the 2009–2010 and 2014–2015 academic year, with 61% of these students seeking counselling for anxiety, 49% seeking counselling for depression, 45% seeking counselling for stress, and 28% seeking counselling for concerns regarding academic performance.[25]

Mental illness

[edit]

Late adolescence and early adulthood is a window of onset for many psycho-social-behavioral illnesses. Therefore, mental health disorders are often first diagnosed in college students. In a survey of 14,000 college students from 8 different countries, researchers found that approximately 35% of students had an undiagnosed mental health illness.[26] An estimated 75% of all lifetime mental disorders are developed by the age of 24.[27] Common mental health problems among college students include anxiety disorders, depression, ADHD, sleep disorders, and suicide.

Depression

[edit]

Major Depressive Disorder affects more than 16.1 million Americans over the age of 18 in a given year. Mental health issues can hinder student success in college. However, oftentimes college students experiencing depression have not been diagnosed. Demographically, upperclassmen, college students, and those living off campus are considered more likely to be depressed. Common concerns that lead to depression among college students include pressure to perform well academically, worries about success, and thoughts about post-graduation plans.[28] The American College Health Association has been established for students with depression to provide resources, programs, and guidelines and promote mental health services.[29]

Anxiety disorders

[edit]

College students can experience significant stress and anxiety from having to balance a multitude of responsibilities such as managing rigorous coursework, participating in extracurricular activities, maintaining relationships, working, and managing finances. Anxiety or excessive worry can cause significant impairment in general functioning. Symptoms of general anxiety disorder include restlessness, difficulty concentrating, irritability, fatigue and sleep disturbances. In a 2018 survey, the American College Health Association reported that 63.4% of college students experienced overwhelming anxiety and 22.1% were diagnosed or professionally treated within the last 12 months.[30] Students may also experience social anxiety disorder which is characterized by significant anxiety or fear of judgment or embarrassment in social situations such as meeting or conversing with new people, public speaking, and attending parties or social gatherings. As with depression, students with social anxiety disorder are more likely to have lower attendance and participation rates. Students that have experienced significant traumatic events such as sexual assault may develop post-traumatic stress disorder. In 2015, Association of American Universities conducted a survey on sexual assault misconduct in colleges. 11.7% of students reported to have experienced nonconsensual penetration or sexual touch by physical force or incapacitation while in college.[31] Students with untreated anxiety disorders are at greater risk for drug and alcohol abuse.

Sleep disorders

[edit]
Main article: Sleep deprivation in higher education

Sleep is important for a person's physical and mental wellbeing, and the average college student is typically not getting the recommended amount of sleep.[32] Not only are parents not around anymore to enforce bedtime but there are also a plethora of classes, parties, extracurriculars, and other events that cause each day to look different from the next. Due to the varying schedules, it is difficult for a college student to establish a routine for sleep, and can increase their risk of developing a sleeping disorder.

A sleeping disorder is a disorder that causes a person to have an abnormal sleep pattern.[33] It can progress into other health problems if not treated. Some common sleep disorders are insomnia, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and narcolepsy. Some of these conditions can be due to underlying health problems such as depression, anxiety, and panic disorders.[34] Common symptoms include excessive daytime sleepiness, having trouble falling asleep, waking up in the middle of the night and having trouble falling or staying asleep.[35]

ADHD

[edit]

ADHD is prevalent in around 2–8% of students in the United States, and 25% of students with disabilities.[36] Several studies state higher incidence of alcohol and substance use in students with ADHD.[37] Of note, students with ADHD who took stimulant medications were found to have more problematic drinking habits than those who did not take stimulant medications.[38]

There is a wide prevalence of prescription stimulant misuse among college campuses in the United States.[39] The use of stimulants are increasing in students without ADHD, primarily for cognitive and academic improvements. There are numerous misconceptions that entice students to use Adderall as "performance enhancers", however scientific evidence illustrates a negative association between stimulant use and academic performance.[39][40] There are potentially negative health effects that unprescribed stimulants may cause, such as elevated blood pressure, paranoia, serious cardiovascular adverse effects and sudden death which are warranted with a black box warning on amphetamine medications.[41][42]

Eating disorders

[edit]

Eating disorders are psychological conditions characterized by abnormal and hazardous eating habits. There exist several types, the most common being anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.[43][44] Anorexia nervosa occurs when individuals consider themselves as overweight despite being concerningly underweight.[45] Individuals will monitor their weight by restricting consumption of calories and certain foods, and develop an obsession with their body image.[45] Bulimia nervosa is characterized by reoccurring binge-eating episodes following by radical compensatory behaviours including fasting, self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives and diuretics, and/or excessive physical exercise.[46] Similar to bulimia nervosa, individuals with binge-eating disorder will consume large portions of food in a short amount of time, but will not engage in compensatory behaviours.[46]

Although eating disorders affect individuals of all genders, ethnicities, and races,[47][48] many studies show a disproportionately increased risk among post-secondary students, with majority indicating a higher prevalence rate compared to the general population.[49][50] This trend can be attributed to the unique challenges faced by college students as they attempt to navigate through and adapt to post-secondary life.[51] Such difficulties include increased stressors and pressure, a lack of academic, social and/or financial structure, and fear of gaining excessive weight, which can exacerbate underlying mental health issues or, in some cases, create new ones.[49][47][51] Additionally, eating disorders have more recently been attributed in part to body image issues stemming from the unrealistic portrayal of men and women on social media and on television.

Many students entering post-secondary institutions will already be experimenting with safe dieting methods; however, 35% will progress to pathological dieting, and of those, 20–25% develop partial or full-syndrome eating disorders.[47] Cases of partial-eating disorders may become spontaneously remised, while a subset transition into a full disorder.[52] According to a report by the National Eating Disorders Association, eating disorders typically occur between the ages of 18 and 21, with 10–20% and 4–10% of American college women and men being affected, respectively.[47] Students experiencing symptoms of eating disorders are also more likely to experience psychiatric comorbidity.[49][53]

Members of certain groups within college are more likely to report and experience symptoms of eating disorders, including athletes and transgender students.[54] The National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associating Disorders states that 16% of American transgender students reported having an eating disorder.[55] Another report published by the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse found that 35% of female and 10% of male athletes were at risk for anorexia nervosa, while 58% of female and 38% of male athletes were at risk for bulimia nervosa.[54]

Effective interventions
[edit]

Given that eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of all mental illnesses, early detection, prevention and treatment is of utmost importance when discussing effective recovery.[47][56] Research shows that receipt of treatment for eating disorders is globally very low, creating a gap wherein individuals in need of care are not receiving proper treatment.[57] Several studies investigating eating disorder prevalence on college campuses in the United States found that less than 20% of students who screened positive for an eating disorder received treatment for their diagnosis.[49] Another study found that 30–70% of North American students seeking treatment for an eating disorder receive medical intervention for a perceived weight problem as opposed to a mental health problem.[58] This is not ideal, as early detection and subsequent management significantly increases the chances of full recovery.[59][60] It has been found that seeking help is disincentivized when students are not aware of the options available.[61][62][63] Therefore, post-secondary institutions have a responsibility to reach out to students, provide tailored feedback on potential symptoms, aid in creating suggestions for future goals, and facilitate the recovery process.

Post-secondary campuses in North America already provide accessibility to some programs that are both feasible to deliver and facilitate comprehensive screening.[49][47][52] The Healthy Body Image Program is an online platform intended to screen and deliver tailored interventions to students on campuses.[64] The program labels students as low- or high-risk, or identifies those with a possible clinical/subclinical eating disorder.[65] It subsequently offers suitable evidence-based online interventions or a referral to a specialized physician in order to address risks and clinical status.[65] Educational campaigns intended to deliver factual knowledge regarding eating disorders and helpful resources have proven to be most successful when targeting students.[47] Although many colleges in the United States offer annual or bi-annual education programs, very few do so on a monthly or weekly basis, which can impact students’ ability to access proper services.[47] Efficacy of treatments are also reported when there is an emphasis on holistic health and interactive components.[52] Increasing media literacy, specifically concerning distorted media representation of body image, and promoting body satisfaction can improve management skills and encourage positive relationship building.[66] Interventions that aid students in recognizing risk factors, such as sociocultural pressure for certain body types, body dissatisfaction, poor self esteem, and challenges with weight management deliver improvements in regards to body satisfaction.[67][68][69] Additionally, interventions that promote weight control through healthy dietary techniques, utilize persuasion principles (e.g. foot-in-the-door method), and include motivational enhancement exercises have been reported to improve weight gain and functional impairment.[70]

Treatment gaps
[edit]

Although there are a number of helpful online and in-person detection services offered by post-secondary institutions, there is still a significant gap in regards to treatment of eating disorders on campuses.[49][47] The National Eating Disorder Association found that therapeutic and counseling services were reported to be of highest importance; however, availability is scarce among staff who are specifically trained in counseling and nutritional services.[47] Furthermore, there exists a lack of detection and treatment options to match the unique needs of sexual minority students, racial minority students, and college athletes, who appear to be at higher risk for eating disorders or related behaviours.[71][72][73] As such, it is imperative for personnel to be properly trained in order to provide culturally and socially tailored help.

Alcohol and other drug use

[edit]
Main article: Alcohol use among college students

The most common college health key performance indicator relates to levels and the management of alcohol and other drug (AOD) misuse and abuse. Substance abuse has been shown to peak in early adulthood.[74] In college and university students, substance use is predicted by many factors including sensation seeking behavioural tendencies,[75] perceived use of substances by peers,[76] biological markers, and habits prior to post-secondary education.[74] In North America, alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco are the most frequently used and misused substances.[77]

Alcohol

[edit]

Alcohol is the most heavily consumed substance globally, accounting for 4.6% of the global burden of disease with young adults disproportionately affected.[78][79] According to the 2018 National College Health Assessment (NCHA) administered to college and university students in North America, 60.6% of males and 62.5% of females reported consuming alcohol within the last 30 days.[80] Student perceptions about the frequency of alcohol use by their peers proved to be higher than reality, with NCHA results indicating that students perceived 93.2% of their peers to have consumed alcohol within 30 days.[80] The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism suggests that around 1,400 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die annually as a result of alcohol consumption, and around half a million students sustain injuries under the influence of alcohol.[81]

According to Alan Dennington, a researcher on the topic of mental health on college campuses, 1 in 4 college students experience a decline in their academics due to the use of alcohol.[82] Many post-secondary institutions have introduced harm reduction programs with the goal of reducing problematic alcohol consumption habits among students.[83] As of 2010, 98% of colleges in the United States used programming in order to reduce the risk of student drinking.[83] In 2002, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism's Task Force on College Drinking published a set of recommendations for colleges and universities to reduce dangerous drinking behaviours.[81] These guidelines included both individual-level and population-level strategies, including restricting alcohol consumption on campus, campaigns addressing social norms, and targeted educational initiatives.[83][81][79] However, research suggests that these recommendations are not followed properly in American colleges, and updated approaches may be required.[83][79] Some emerging strategies focus on the role of social media in propagating alcohol culture on post-secondary campuses.[79] It has been found that increased marketing of alcoholic products is positively correlated with consumption by youth, a problem which has been exacerbated in recent years through the growing popularity of social media advertisements.[79]

Tobacco

[edit]

Tobacco can be consumed in a variety of forms with popular options for post-secondary students including cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and waterpipes.[84] Tobacco consumption rates in post-secondary students vary dependent on the geographical location and gender of student.[85] In North America, the National College Health Assessment (NCHA) for spring 2019 reported that 6.4% of students used cigarettes within the last 30 days, 12.6% used e-cigarettes, and 2.1% used water pipes (also known as shisha or hookah).[80] In each category, use of tobacco products by men was more frequent.[80] North American college students vastly overestimate the use of tobacco products by their peers, with cigarette use estimated at 70.2%, e-cigarettes estimated at 83.1%, and water pipes estimated at 58.2%.[80]

Initially, e-cigarettes (also known as 'vapes') were viewed as a safer alternative to cigarettes, but are known to have expanded the tobacco market due to their appeal to youth.[86] College students have been found to underestimate the dangers and addictiveness of e-cigarettes as compared to conventional cigarettes.[87] While e-cigarettes contain lower levels of carcinogens than cigarettes, they still expose the user to ultrafine particles and other toxins that can increase risk of chronic disease.[86]

Many post-secondary institutions in North America implement anti-smoking programs, exemplified by around 2000 smoke-free college sites in the United States and at least 65 in Canada.[84] Many of these programs are expanded to all tobacco products, and aim to reduce student exposure to second-hand smoke, discourage use of tobacco products, and eliminate litter created by cigarette butts.[84]

Cannabis

[edit]

Marijuana is one of the most widely used drugs among young adults.[88] According to the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 22% of college students and young adults report consuming marijuana within the past month.[89] Data has shown that the proportion of young individuals who perceive marijuana as dangerous is decreasing, which may hinder prevention efforts, such as those against the emerging and popular administration route of vaping.[89] Frequent use of marijuana by young people may be associated with poor health outcomes.[89]

Additional drugs include

[edit]

Other substances used by post-secondary students vary by geographic location, gender, socioeconomic status, and other factors. Substances used by college students include prescription opioids, amphetamines and other stimulants, hallucinogens, and sedatives.[90]

Opioids are a class of drugs that can relax the body and relieve pain.[91] In the United States, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reported that misuse of prescription opioids has dropped from 5.4% of college students in 2013 to 2.7% in 2018.[92] Examples of prescription opioids include hydrocodone (Vicodin®), codeine, oxycodone (OxyContin®, Percocet®), and fentanyl.[91] Misuse of opioids has resulted in the opioid epidemic affecting primarily North American countries.[93]

Amphetamine and Dextroamphetamine (Adderall) is a medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Adderall falls under the drug class called stimulants.[94] Over 2.5 million Americans are prescribed Adderall, and roughly 50% of college students that were prescribed this drug have been asked by their peers if they can buy some.[95] Adderall is linked to aggression, restlessness, increased blood pressure and heart rate, paranoia, psychosis, seizures, heart attack, and stroke.[96] Adderall is known to only improve the cognitive processing in those who have conditions such as ADHD; for individuals with no cognitive condition, the drug should have no effect and taking this drug can result in negative effects.[97] Other prescription stimulant drugs include Concerta® and Ritalin®, which are both brand names for methylphenidate hydrochloride. Non-prescription stimulant drugs include cocaine and methamphetamine (commonly known as meth). The NIDA has reported that 11.4% of young adults aged 18–25 have used cocaine in their lifetime.[98]

Hallucinogens alter one's perceptions of reality as well as their thoughts and emotions.[99] This class of drugs include psilocybin (commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms), D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), salvia, and ketamine.[99] The NIDA reports that over two hundred thousand Americans over the age of 12 reported use of LSD within the past month.[100]

Sedative drugs, such as benzodiazepines, are often used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep.[101] This class of drugs includes diazepam (Valium®), lorazepam (Ativan), and Alprazolam (Xanax).[101][102] A 2001 study of college students from 119 American 4-year college programs found that 7.8% of students had tried benzodiazepines in their lifetime.[103]

Sexual health

[edit]

Sexually transmitted infections

[edit]

College health key performance indicator relating to levels harm from sexual activity are common. Although anyone engaging in sexual activity can contract a sexually transmitted infection (STI), adolescents are particularly susceptible and account for increased prevalence rates compared to the general population.[104] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that youth aged 15–24 account for the highest incidence of combined total cases of gonorrhea, chlamydia and syphilis in 2015.[105] This age group made up 65% of chlamydia cases, and 53% of gonorrhea cases.[106] Additionally, a study found that 15% of respondents in a sample of 2000 current and former American college students report never using a condom, and 4% only do so when their partner asks.[107] Given college students fall within the age range of 15–24, and are more inclined to engage in casual sexual encounters without proper protection,[107] post-secondary institutions hold a responsibility to ensure adequate STI screening and education prevention. One study investigated the prevalence of chlamydia among college students in the United States, and found that routine screening is not available, or easily accessible, at most post-secondary institutions.[108]

Common services, programs and policies included in advancing the health and wellbeing of College and University students

[edit]
University Health Services Centre at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria

Psychological counseling and other mental healthcare services

[edit]

Post-secondary institutions are faced with the challenge of attempting to prevent, identify and treat mental illnesses among college students. Some challenges arise from fragmented services, reactive responses, piecemeal funding and high resource needs, among other potential factors.[109] A report by the Ontario College Health Association found that college students were more than twice as likely to report mental illness symptoms and elevated stress levels than non-college students.[109] This growing demand for on-campus resources may be related to increased numbers of nontraditional students, such as students with disabilities.[110] As a result, smaller institutions, which tend to have fewer mental health professionals and greater budgetary constraints, may experience enhanced resource strain and greater challenges in addressing the mental health concerns of their students.[23] However, when looking at these services, culture needs to be taken into account, since traditionally under represented students are less likely to seek psychological counseling as opposed to their classmates. The interventions used by many of these American universities, use a more western approach to service delivery which tends to inadequately address the mental health concerns of the culturally diverse communities that make up these universities.[111]

To continually achieve college health, many institutions engage in both the process of healthcare and the process of health promotion.[112] The advancement of student health through educational, political, regulatory and organizational supports is referred to as Health Promotion in Higher Education.[113][3] As the current era of public health,[114] health promotion goes beyond bio-behavioral influences using a settings approach, with the settings including: school health, institution/community health, and work sites.[3] Another national body in the field of college health is the National Collegiate EMS Foundation (NCEMSF), which is dedicated to the promotion and support of emergency medical services on college and university campuses.[115] Other national and international associations include National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) and National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). While the goal of post-secondary institutions is not necessarily to provide psychiatric interventions, an increasing number of academic institutions strive towards establishing guidelines and developing on-campus mental healthcare services.[24] Although elements of screening, identification, and treatment services exist across post-secondary institutions, the accessibility of and available resources is variable.[116] The student counselling centre is most commonly identified as responsible for mental health care and support, with electronic self-referrals via online counselling centre websites becoming increasingly common.[116] Moreover, the use of internet-based technology typically involves cognitive behavioural therapy, one of the most commonly employed mediums targeting depression and anxiety among the student population.[116] Associated with significant positive outcomes, this intervention appears to be promising for students in university settings.[116]

Some campuses are working towards establishing meaningful connection with Aboriginal, international and LGBT students to increase social and mental health support among vulnerable student populations.[117] For instance, E-health interventions linking traditionally under represented students with culturally connected providers is a potential service that academic institutions could consider implementing.[118]

Many counseling centers are reorienting towards prevention and providing opportunities for personal skills development that are unique and separate from traditional methods of talk therapies. The efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions in the college setting has been a recent topic of exploration. A randomized control trial examined the efficacy of an Internet-based mindfulness training program (iMIND) and an Internet-based cognitive-behavioral training program (iCBT) in promoting mental health outcomes among Hong-Kong college students.[119] Each 8-week long program consisted of eight 30- to 45-minute sessions involving didactic readings, experiential learning (e.g. guided meditation) and daily life applications (e.g. developing self-awareness).[119] Both programs showed potential in improving mental well-being, psychological distress and life satisfaction from pre- to post-assessment.[119]

Assessing College Health

[edit]

There are various aspects linked to college health concerns, and solutions are available on college campuses.[120] Medical professionals have found a higher rate of health issues in young adults on college campuses. Adolescents can develop health issues, and physical and behavioral trait changes with the transition to college campuses. Various health concerns occur, such as sexual health, chronic diseases, disorders, stress, and substance use. Colleges strive to support the development of young adults throughout their years on campus. Despite their busy schedules, it is a priority to have resources available to students. Healthcare professionals and counselors play significant roles in developing students who seek help with issues they struggle with. They can be positive outlets for students working through new environments they have transitioned to. Counselors have recognized that students come to colleges with diverse ranges of perspectives and backgrounds that they bring with them.[121] While counselors see similar themes among students, each patient's topic differs as they transition from adolescents to adults. Their services are accessible to students either in person or online.

Influence of Online Services

[edit]

The internet has been a dominant resource for college students regarding health information. "It offers online health information and service delivery through various formats, including text-based health information, emails, chatrooms, and listservs."[122] A wide variety of online services are readily available for students who need help with access, availability, and high-cost rates. These services can provide solutions for students seeking assistance in non-traditional ways, such as face-to-face. "Of the 514 students who reported seeking health information on the Internet, 204 (36.7%) felt that retrieving health information online improved how they took care of their health a lot or some." Help-seeking is "the process of actively seeking out and utilizing social relationships, either formal or informal, to help with personal problems" (p. 8). Overall, online health services have had positive outcomes for college students. Through research, nine studies have evaluated online health experiences. Ninety percent of participants were satisfied with the service, 86% would continue to use it or use it again, and 72% would recommend it to a friend.[123]

[edit]
Pennsylvania State University Health Services

College represents a key period to engage and influence numerous health behaviors among young adults, including promoting physical activity.[124] Regular physical activity has been recognized as fundamental to the improvement of both physical and psychological functioning.[125][126] Promoting physical activity among college and university students can provide an opportunity to encourage long-term active habits.[124] Approximately half or more of university students in the United States, Canada, and China were categorized as insufficiently active.[124] Seminars and counselor-led workshops dealing with recommendations and strategies to maintaining an active lifestyle appear to be effective means of preserving or enhancing healthy behaviours during the transition into university life.[127] Studies have also suggested that information about the benefits of physical activity could have a greater effect on college students’ general health, mental health, and happiness when positively framed.[127] NIRSA comprises and supports leaders in collegiate recreation

The college years are a potential period for nutrition-related interventions, as eating behaviours among college students may carry over to later life.[128] Healthy or poor nutritional habits among college students may stem from the interplay of several components, including personal, sociocultural and economic factors.[128] Low-intake of fruits and vegetables among students may result from relatively low amounts of these foods in traditional dishes and unfamiliarity with reading and comprehending food labels.[129] In addition to these sociocultural and educational barriers, other factors such as such as the cost of living and food availability at college are cited as hurdles even for motivated students.[130] On the other hand, factors such as individual knowledge and awareness as well as parental support are cited as having a positive influence in promoting healthy eating among students.[130] A variety of social change campaigns have been explored as options to promote healthy eating in the college setting.[131] Ensuring easy availability of fruits and vegetables on-campus through farmers' markets or the cafeteria consistently providing healthier alternatives are potential strategies.[130] Utilizing promotional point-of-purchase messages in the cafeteria is another method that may encourage students to make healthier choices.[131] National Association of College and University Food Services (NACUFS) can be significant partners in achieving key performance indicators in college health.

Relationship to adolescent medicine

[edit]
Further information: Adolescent medicine
Tranquada Student Services Center at the Claremont Colleges in Southern California

In the United States, the subspecialty of college health is closely affiliated with adolescent medicine. Many adolescent medicine fellowships include rotations in college-based student health clinics and many adolescent medicine physicians work in college health clinics.[132][133] College students are generally at the latter edge of the age range of pediatrics in the United States.[134]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Grace TW (May 1997). "Health problems of college students". Journal of American College Health. 45 (6): 243–50. doi:10.1080/07448481.1997.9936894. PMID 9164054.
  2. ^ "Health Education/Health Promotion". acha.org. Advanced Solutions International, Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  3. ^ a b c Zimmer CG, Hill MH, Sonnad SR (May 2003). "A scope-of-practice survey leading to the development of standards of practice for health promotion in higher education". Journal of American College Health. 51 (6): 247–54. doi:10.1080/07448480309596357. PMID 14510027. S2CID 37018256.
  4. ^ Keeling RP (March 2002). "Binge drinking and the college environment". Journal of American College Health. 50 (5): 197–201. doi:10.1080/07448480209595712. PMID 11990978. S2CID 42063403.
  5. ^ Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Assuring the Health of the Public in the 21st Century (2002). Academia. National Academies Press (US).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ribeiro IJ, Pereira R, Freire IV, de Oliveira BG, Casotti CA, Boery EN (June 2018). "Stress and Quality of Life Among University Students: A Systematic Literature Review". Health Professions Education. 4 (2): 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.hpe.2017.03.002.
  7. ^ a b c d Haidar SA, de Vries NK, Karavetian M, El-Rassi R (February 2018). "Stress, Anxiety, and Weight Gain among University and College Students: A Systematic Review". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 118 (2): 261–274. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2017.10.015. PMID 29389509.
  8. ^ a b Leppink EW, Odlaug BL, Lust K, Christenson G, Grant JE (December 2016). "The Young and the Stressed: Stress, Impulse Control, and Health in College Students". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 204 (12): 931–938. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000586. PMID 27575792. S2CID 37573978.
  9. ^ "Spring 2017 Reference Group Executive Summary" (PDF). American College Health Association. Spring 2017. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
  10. ^ Dinis J, Bragança M (2018). "Quality of Sleep and Depression in College Students: A Systematic Review". Sleep Science. 11 (4): 290–301. doi:10.5935/1984-0063.20180045. PMC 6361309. PMID 30746048.
  11. ^ a b c Posselt JR, Lipson SK (2016). "Competition, Anxiety, and Depression in the College Classroom: Variations by Student Identity and Field of Study". Journal of College Student Development. 57 (8): 973–989. doi:10.1353/csd.2016.0094. S2CID 151752884.
  12. ^ Carson L, Bartneck C, Voges K (December 2012). "Over-Competitiveness in Academia: A Literature Review". Disruptive Science and Technology. 1 (4): 183–190. doi:10.1089/dst.2013.0013. hdl:10092/9196. ISSN 2163-310X.
  13. ^ "Mental health of students in higher education" (PDF). Royal College of Psychiatrists. September 2011. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
  14. ^ a b Stillwell SB, Vermeesch AL, Scott JG (December 2017). "Interventions to Reduce Perceived Stress Among Graduate Students: A Systematic Review With Implications for Evidence-Based Practice". Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing. 14 (6): 507–513. doi:10.1111/wvn.12250. PMID 28795775. S2CID 3324520.
  15. ^ Regehr C, Glancy D, Pitts A (May 2013). "Interventions to reduce stress in university students: a review and meta-analysis". Journal of Affective Disorders. 148 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.026. PMID 23246209. S2CID 8004006.
  16. ^ Dogra S, MacIntosh L, O'Neill C, D'Silva C, Shearer H, Smith K, Cote P (2018-03-01). "The association of physical activity with depression and stress among post-secondary school students: A systematic review". Mental Health and Physical Activity. 14: 146–156. doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2017.11.001. ISSN 1755-2966.
  17. ^ Wellcome (2020). "What Researchers Think About the Culture They Work In" (PDF).
  18. ^ a b c Yager Z, Diedrichs PC, Ricciardelli LA, Halliwell E (June 2013). "What works in secondary schools? A systematic review of classroom-based body image programs". Body Image. 10 (3): 271–81. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.04.001. PMID 23683611.
  19. ^ "Trends in College Pricing 2019" (PDF). CollegeBoard. 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
  20. ^ "The Fed – Education Debt and Student Loans". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
  21. ^ a b Richardson T, Elliott P, Roberts R (December 2013). "The relationship between personal unsecured debt and mental and physical health: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (8): 1148–62. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.009. PMID 24121465.
  22. ^ "In It Together: Taking Action on Student Mental Health" (PDF). Council of Ontario. November 2017. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  23. ^ a b Mowbray CT, Megivern D, Mandiberg JM, Strauss S, Stein CH, Collins K, et al. (April 2006). "Campus mental health services: recommendations for change". The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 76 (2): 226–37. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.2.226. PMID 16719642.
  24. ^ a b "Post-Secondary Student Mental Health: Guide to a Systemic Approach" (PDF). Healthy Campuses. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
  25. ^ "By the numbers: Stress on campus". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
  26. ^ "One in Three College Freshmen Worldwide Reports having a Mental Health Disorder". apa.org. Retrieved 2019-10-23.
  27. ^ "Teens & Young Adults". National Alliance on Mental Illness.
  28. ^ Beiter R, Nash R, McCrady M, Rhoades D, Linscomb M, Clarahan M, Sammut S (March 2015). "The prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students". Journal of Affective Disorders. 173: 90–6. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.054. PMID 25462401.
  29. ^ "Mental Health". American College Health Association. Archived from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
  30. ^ "American College Health Association National College Health Assessment II" (PDF). American College Health Association. Spring 2018. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
  31. ^ "AAU Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct (2015)". www.aau.edu. Association of American Universities (AAU). Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  32. ^ See J (2018-02-14). "Sleep and the college student". CollegiateParent. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  33. ^ "Sleep disorders – Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  34. ^ Brooks R. "How to Diagnose & Treat the 5 Most Common Sleep Disorders". www.aastweb.org. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  35. ^ "Sleep Disorders". www.sleepfoundation.org. National Sleep Foundation. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  36. ^ Green AL, Rabiner DL (July 2012). "What do we really know about ADHD in college students?". Neurotherapeutics. 9 (3): 559–68. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0127-8. PMC 3441934. PMID 22678459.
  37. ^ Blase SL, Gilbert AN, Anastopoulos AD, Costello EJ, Hoyle RH, Swartzwelder HS, Rabiner DL (November 2009). "Self-reported ADHD and adjustment in college: cross-sectional and longitudinal findings". Journal of Attention Disorders. 13 (3): 297–309. doi:10.1177/1087054709334446. PMID 19474463. S2CID 22601130.
  38. ^ Baker L, Prevatt F, Proctor B (April 2012). "Drug and alcohol use in college students with and without ADHD". Journal of Attention Disorders. 16 (3): 255–63. doi:10.1177/1087054711416314. PMID 21828360. S2CID 9606869.
  39. ^ a b Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Marraccini ME, Gudmundsdottir BG, Munro BA, Rathkey ES, McCallum A (October 2016). "Prescription stimulant medication misuse: Where are we and where do we go from here?". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 24 (5): 400–414. doi:10.1037/pha0000093. PMC 5113141. PMID 27690507.
  40. ^ Arria AM, DuPont RL (October 2010). "Nonmedical prescription stimulant use among college students: why we need to do something and what we need to do". Journal of Addictive Diseases. 29 (4): 417–26. doi:10.1080/10550887.2010.509273. PMC 2951617. PMID 20924877.
  41. ^ Kennedy S (2018-12-15). "Raising Awareness About Prescription and Stimulant Abuse in College Students Through On-Campus Community Involvement Projects". Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education. 17 (1): A50–A53. PMC 6312145. PMID 30618499.
  42. ^ Research, Center for Drug Evaluation and (2019-06-26). "FDA Drug Safety Communication: Safety Review Update of Medications used to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults". FDA.
  43. ^ Kugu N, Akyuz G, Dogan O, Ersan E, Izgic F (February 2006). "The prevalence of eating disorders among university students and the relationship with some individual characteristics". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 40 (2): 129–35. doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01759.x. PMID 16476130. S2CID 208628297.
  44. ^ Sim LA, McAlpine DE, Grothe KB, Himes SM, Cockerill RG, Clark MM (August 2010). "Identification and treatment of eating disorders in the primary care setting". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 85 (8): 746–51. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0070. PMC 2912736. PMID 20605951.
  45. ^ a b Galmiche M, Déchelotte P, Lambert G, Tavolacci MP (May 2019). "Prevalence of eating disorders over the 2000–2018 period: a systematic literature review". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 109 (5): 1402–1413. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy342. PMID 31051507.
  46. ^ a b Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association., American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5 Task Force. (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1. OCLC 830807378.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  47. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Eating Disorders on the College Campus" (PDF). National Eating Disorders Association. February 2013. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
  48. ^ Yu UJ (July 2014). "Deconstructing College Students' Perceptions of Thin-Idealized Versus Nonidealized Media Images on Body Dissatisfaction and Advertising Effectiveness". Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. 32 (3): 153–169. doi:10.1177/0887302X14525850. ISSN 0887-302X. S2CID 145447562.
  49. ^ a b c d e f Fitzsimmons-Craft EE, Karam AM, Monterubio GE, Taylor CB, Wilfley DE (September 2019). "Screening for Eating Disorders on College Campuses: a Review of the Recent Literature". Current Psychiatry Reports. 21 (10): 101. doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1093-1. PMC 7025756. PMID 31522343.
  50. ^ Eisenberg D, Nicklett EJ, Roeder K, Kirz NE (November 2011). "Eating disorder symptoms among college students: prevalence, persistence, correlates, and treatment-seeking". Journal of American College Health. 59 (8): 700–7. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.546461. PMC 3721327. PMID 21950250.
  51. ^ a b Storrie K, Ahern K, Tuckett A (February 2010). "A systematic review: Students with mental health problems—a growing problem" (PDF). International Journal of Nursing Practice. 16 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1111/j.1440-172X.2009.01813.x. PMID 20158541.
  52. ^ a b c "Disordered Eating and Unhealthy Substance Use among College Students" (PDF). University of Victoria. July 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
  53. ^ Bahji A, Mazhar MN, Hudson CC, Nadkarni P, MacNeil BA, Hawken E (March 2019). "Prevalence of substance use disorder comorbidity among individuals with eating disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Psychiatry Research. 273: 58–66. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.007. PMID 30640052. S2CID 58663627.
  54. ^ a b "Statistics & Research on Eating Disorders". National Eating Disorders Association. 2018-02-19. Retrieved 2019-11-13.
  55. ^ "Eating Disorder Statistics • National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders". National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders. 8 May 2016. Retrieved 2019-11-13.
  56. ^ Vall E, Wade TD (November 2015). "Predictors of treatment outcome in individuals with eating disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 48 (7): 946–71. doi:10.1002/eat.22411. PMID 26171853.
  57. ^ Kazdin AE, Fitzsimmons-Craft EE, Wilfley DE (March 2017). "Addressing critical gaps in the treatment of eating disorders". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 50 (3): 170–189. doi:10.1002/eat.22670. PMC 6169314. PMID 28102908.
  58. ^ Hart LM, Granillo MT, Jorm AF, Paxton SJ (July 2011). "Unmet need for treatment in the eating disorders: a systematic review of eating disorder specific treatment seeking among community cases". Clinical Psychology Review. 31 (5): 727–35. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.004. PMID 21501580.
  59. ^ Costa MB, Melnik T (June 2016). "Effectiveness of psychosocial interventions in eating disorders: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews". Einstein. 14 (2): 235–77. doi:10.1590/S1679-45082016RW3120. PMC 4943360. PMID 27462898.
  60. ^ Zeeck A, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Friederich HC, Brockmeyer T, Resmark G, Hagenah U, et al. (2018-05-01). "Psychotherapeutic Treatment for Anorexia Nervosa: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 158. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00158. PMC 5939188. PMID 29765338.
  61. ^ Gould MS, Munfakh JL, Lubell K, Kleinman M, Parker S (October 2002). "Seeking help from the internet during adolescence". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 41 (10): 1182–9. doi:10.1097/00004583-200210000-00007. PMID 12364839.
  62. ^ Niederkrotenthaler T, Reidenberg DJ, Till B, Gould MS (September 2014). "Increasing help-seeking and referrals for individuals at risk for suicide by decreasing stigma: the role of mass media". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 47 (3 Suppl 2): S235-43. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.06.010. PMID 25145745.
  63. ^ Ben-Porath DD (October 2002). "Stigmatization of Individuals Who Receive Psychotherapy: An Interaction Between Help-seeking Behavior and the Presence of Depression". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 21 (4): 400–413. doi:10.1521/jscp.21.4.400.22594.
  64. ^ Wilfley DE, Agras WS, Taylor CB (July 2013). "Reducing the burden of eating disorders: a model for population-based prevention and treatment for university and college campuses". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 46 (5): 529–32. doi:10.1002/eat.22117. PMC 3703768. PMID 23658106.
  65. ^ a b Graham AK, Trockel M, Weisman H, Fitzsimmons-Craft EE, Balantekin KN, Wilfley DE, Taylor CB (2019-05-19). "A screening tool for detecting eating disorder risk and diagnostic symptoms among college-age women". Journal of American College Health. 67 (4): 357–366. doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1483936. PMC 6320726. PMID 29979922.
  66. ^ Stice E, Shaw H, Marti CN (April 2007). "A meta-analytic review of eating disorder prevention programs: encouraging findings". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 3 (1): 207–31. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091447. PMID 17716054.
  67. ^ McVey GL, Kirsh G, Maker D, Walker KS, Mullane J, Laliberte M, et al. (June 2010). "Promoting positive body image among university students: A collaborative pilot study". Body Image. 7 (3): 200–4. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.02.005. PMID 20227934.
  68. ^ Stice E, Fisher M, Martinez E (March 2004). "Eating disorder diagnostic scale: additional evidence of reliability and validity". Psychological Assessment. 16 (1): 60–71. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.1.60. PMID 15023093. S2CID 17165018.
  69. ^ Yager Z, O'Dea JA (June 2008). "Prevention programs for body image and eating disorders on University campuses: a review of large, controlled interventions". Health Promotion International. 23 (2): 173–89. doi:10.1093/heapro/dan004. PMID 18263883.
  70. ^ Yager Z, O'Dea J (October 2010). "A controlled intervention to promote a healthy body image, reduce eating disorder risk and prevent excessive exercise among trainee health education and physical education teachers" (PDF). Health Education Research. 25 (5): 841–52. doi:10.1093/her/cyq036. PMID 20656796.
  71. ^ Laska MN, VanKim NA, Erickson DJ, Lust K, Eisenberg ME, Rosser BR (January 2015). "Disparities in Weight and Weight Behaviors by Sexual Orientation in College Students". American Journal of Public Health. 105 (1): 111–121. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302094. PMC 4265919. PMID 25393177.
  72. ^ Matthews-Ewald MR, Zullig KJ, Ward RM (August 2014). "Sexual orientation and disordered eating behaviors among self-identified male and female college students". Eating Behaviors. 15 (3): 441–4. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.05.002. PMID 25064296.
  73. ^ Diemer EW, Grant JD, Munn-Chernoff MA, Patterson DA, Duncan AE (August 2015). "Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation, and Eating-Related Pathology in a National Sample of College Students". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 57 (2): 144–9. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.03.003. PMC 4545276. PMID 25937471.
  74. ^ a b Stone AL, Becker LG, Huber AM, Catalano RF (July 2012). "Review of risk and protective factors of substance use and problem use in emerging adulthood". Addictive Behaviors. 37 (7): 747–75. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.02.014. PMID 22445418.
  75. ^ Hittner JB, Swickert R (August 2006). "Sensation seeking and alcohol use: a meta-analytic review". Addictive Behaviors. 31 (8): 1383–401. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.11.004. PMID 16343793.
  76. ^ Pischke CR, Helmer SM, McAlaney J, Bewick BM, Vriesacker B, Van Hal G, et al. (December 2015). "Normative misperceptions of tobacco use among university students in seven European countries: baseline findings of the 'Social Norms Intervention for the prevention of Polydrug usE' study" (PDF). Addictive Behaviors. 51: 158–64. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.07.012. hdl:2454/38102. PMID 26275842.
  77. ^ Primack BA, Kim KH, Shensa A, Sidani JE, Barnett TE, Switzer GE (2012). "Tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol use in university students: a cluster analysis". Journal of American College Health. 60 (5): 374–86. doi:10.1080/07448481.2012.663840. PMC 3401532. PMID 22686360.
  78. ^ Winstock A. "Global Drug Survey" (PDF). Global Drug Survey.
  79. ^ a b c d e McCreanor T (December 2012). "Youth drinking cultures, social networking and alcohol marketing: implications for public health" (PDF). Critical Public Health. 23 (1): 110–120. doi:10.1080/09581596.2012.748883. S2CID 145528477.
  80. ^ a b c d e "National College Health Assessment (NCHA)". American College Health Association.
  81. ^ a b c "A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges" (PDF). College Drinking Prevention.
  82. ^ Alan, Dennington (3 April 2020). "Statistics and Signs of Substance Abuse in College Students". Timely MD. Alan Dennington. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
  83. ^ a b c d Nelson TF, Toomey TL, Lenk KM, Erickson DJ, Winters KC (October 2010). "Implementation of NIAAA College Drinking Task Force recommendations: how are colleges doing 6 years later?". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 34 (10): 1687–93. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01268.x. PMID 20626728. S2CID 28707796.
  84. ^ a b c "University and College 100% Smoke-Free Campuses in Canada: NATIONAL STATUS REPORT" (PDF). Canadian Cancer Society.
  85. ^ Steptoe A, Wardle J, Cui W, Baban A, Glass K, Tsuda A, Vinck J (December 2002). "An international comparison of tobacco smoking, beliefs and risk awareness in university students from 23 countries". Addiction. 97 (12): 1561–71. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00269.x. PMID 12472640.
  86. ^ a b Glantz SA, Bareham DW (April 2018). "E-Cigarettes: Use, Effects on Smoking, Risks, and Policy Implications". Annual Review of Public Health. 39 (1): 215–235. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013757. PMC 6251310. PMID 29323609.
  87. ^ Cooper M, Loukas A, Harrell MB, Perry CL (2 November 2016). "College students' perceptions of risk and addictiveness of e-cigarettes and cigarettes". Journal of American College Health. 65 (2): 103–111. doi:10.1080/07448481.2016.1254638. PMC 5278646. PMID 27805472.
  88. ^ Ramo DE, Liu H, Prochaska JJ (March 2012). "Tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents and young adults: a systematic review of their co-use". Clinical Psychology Review. 32 (2): 105–21. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.12.002. PMC 3267894. PMID 22245559.
  89. ^ a b c "Marijuana Use in Adolescence". HHS.gov. 2018-06-18. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
  90. ^ "2018 NSDUH Annual National Report". Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 19 August 2019.
  91. ^ a b "Prescription Opioids". National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). June 2021.
  92. ^ "Drug and Alcohol Use in College-Age Adults in 2018". National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). 13 September 2019.
  93. ^ Assistant Secretary of Public Affairs (ASPA) (21 December 2017). "HHS.gov/Opioids: The Prescription Drug & Heroin Overdose Epidemic". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  94. ^ "Adderall NDA" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. March 2007.
  95. ^ ""Study Drug" Abuse by College Students: What You Need to Know". National Center for Health Research. National Center for Health Research. 2016-07-08. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  96. ^ "Prescription Stimulants". National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). 2018-06-06. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  97. ^ "Why You Should Skip Adderall as a Study Drug". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  98. ^ "Cocaine". National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
  99. ^ a b "Hallucinogens". National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
  100. ^ Abuse, National Institute on Drug. "How Widespread Is the Abuse of Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs?". www.drugabuse.gov. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
  101. ^ a b "Antianxiety and Sedative Drugs – Special Subjects". Merck Manuals Consumer Version.
  102. ^ "Xanax Oral: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Pictures, Warnings & Dosing". WebMD.
  103. ^ McCabe SE (July 2005). "Correlates of nonmedical use of prescription benzodiazepine anxiolytics: results from a national survey of U.S. college students". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 79 (1): 53–62. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.12.006. PMC 1761924. PMID 15943944.
  104. ^ "STDs in Adolescents and Young Adults – 2017 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 January 2019.
  105. ^ "2018 STD Surveillance Report". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 October 2019.
  106. ^ Kovacs, Kasia (November 3, 2016). "CDC finds sharp growth in STDs in college-age population". Inside Higher Ed.
  107. ^ a b "Too Many College Students Never Use Condoms During Sex". Bustle. 14 March 2017. Retrieved 2019-11-18.
  108. ^ James AB, Simpson TY, Chamberlain WA (June 2008). "Chlamydia prevalence among college students: reproductive and public health implications". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 35 (6): 529–32. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181676697. PMID 18354340. S2CID 11235872.
  109. ^ a b "Towards a Comprehensive Mental Health Strategy: The crucial role of colleges and universities as partners". Centre for Innovation in Campus Mental Health. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
  110. ^ Rudd MD (2004). "University Counseling Centers: Looking More and More Like Community Clinics". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 35 (3): 316–317. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.3.316.
  111. ^ Kearney LK, Draper M, Barón A (August 2005). "Counseling utilization by ethnic minority college students". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 11 (3): 272–85. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.272. PMID 16117593.
  112. ^ "WHO | The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion". WHO. Retrieved 2020-05-22.
  113. ^ "Standards of practice for health promotion in higher education—third edition, May 2012". Journal of American College Health. 63 (2): 158–60. 2015-02-17. doi:10.1080/07448481.2014.1002304. PMID 25690429. S2CID 38165928.
  114. ^ Awofeso N (May 2004). "What's new about the "new public health"?". American Journal of Public Health. 94 (5): 705–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.5.705. PMC 1448321. PMID 15117684.
  115. ^ "Home". www.ncemsf.org. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
  116. ^ a b c d Farrer L, Gulliver A, Chan JK, Batterham PJ, Reynolds J, Calear A, et al. (May 2013). "Technology-based interventions for mental health in tertiary students: systematic review". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 15 (5): e101. doi:10.2196/jmir.2639. PMC 3668609. PMID 23711740.
  117. ^ Jaworska N, De Somma E, Fonseka B, Heck E, MacQueen GM (December 2016). "Mental Health Services for Students at Postsecondary Institutions: A National Survey". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (12): 766–775. doi:10.1177/0706743716640752. PMC 5564891. PMID 27310230.
  118. ^ Reavley N, Jorm AF (May 2010). "Prevention and early intervention to improve mental health in higher education students: a review". Early Intervention in Psychiatry. 4 (2): 132–42. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7893.2010.00167.x. PMID 20536969. S2CID 2803905.
  119. ^ a b c Mak WW, Chio FH, Chan AT, Lui WW, Wu EK (March 2017). "The Efficacy of Internet-Based Mindfulness Training and Cognitive-Behavioral Training With Telephone Support in the Enhancement of Mental Health Among College Students and Young Working Adults: Randomized Controlled Trial". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 19 (3): e84. doi:10.2196/jmir.6737. PMC 5382258. PMID 28330831.
  120. ^ Grace, Ted W. (1997-05-01). "Health Problems of College Students". Journal of American College Health. 45 (6): 243–251. doi:10.1080/07448481.1997.9936894. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 9164054.
  121. ^ Degges-White, Suzanne; Borzumato-Gainey, Christine, eds. (September 2013). College Student Mental Health Counseling. doi:10.1891/9780826199720. ISBN 978-0-8261-9971-3.
  122. ^ Escoffery, Cam; Miner, Kathleen R; Adame, Daniel D; Butler, Susan; McCormick, Laura; Mendell, Elizabeth (January 2005). "Internet Use for Health Information Among College Students". Journal of American College Health. 53 (4): 183–188. doi:10.3200/JACH.53.4.183-188. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 15663067. S2CID 22803116.
  123. ^ Kauer, Sylvia Deidre; Mangan, Cheryl; Sanci, Lena (2014-03-04). "Do Online Mental Health Services Improve Help-Seeking for Young People? A Systematic Review". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 16 (3): e66. doi:10.2196/jmir.3103. PMC 3961801. PMID 24594922.
  124. ^ a b c Irwin JD (June 2004). "Prevalence of university students' sufficient physical activity: a systematic review". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 98 (3 Pt 1): 927–43. doi:10.2466/pms.98.3.927-943. PMID 15209309. S2CID 44568513.
  125. ^ "2008 Physical Activity Guidelines". Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
  126. ^ "WHO Global recommendations on physical activity for health". World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved 2019-10-26.
  127. ^ a b Almutairi KM, Alonazi WB, Vinluan JM, Almigbal TH, Batais MA, Alodhayani AA, et al. (September 2018). "Health promoting lifestyle of university students in Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional assessment". BMC Public Health. 18 (1): 1093. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5999-z. PMC 6126031. PMID 30185167.
  128. ^ a b Kelly NR, Mazzeo SE, Bean MK (2013-07-01). "Systematic review of dietary interventions with college students: directions for future research and practice". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 45 (4): 304–13. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2012.10.012. PMID 23433967.
  129. ^ Campos S, Doxey J, Hammond D (August 2011). "Nutrition labels on pre-packaged foods: a systematic review". Public Health Nutrition. 14 (8): 1496–506. doi:10.1017/S1368980010003290. PMID 21241532.
  130. ^ a b c Amore L, Buchthal OV, Banna JC (22 February 2019). "Identifying perceived barriers and enablers of healthy eating in college students in Hawai'i: a qualitative study using focus groups". BMC Nutrition. 5 (1): 16. doi:10.1186/s40795-019-0280-0. PMC 7050928. PMID 32153929.
  131. ^ a b Deshpande S, Basil MD, Basil DZ (2009-05-08). "Factors influencing healthy eating habits among college students: an application of the health belief model". Health Marketing Quarterly. 26 (2): 145–64. doi:10.1080/07359680802619834. PMID 19408181. S2CID 205570868.
  132. ^ "Adolescent Medicine – Education & Training | The Children's Hospital at Montefiore". www.cham.org. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
  133. ^ "Adolescent Medicine Fellowship". UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  134. ^ "What is an Adolescent Health Specialist?". HealthyChildren.org. American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved 2020-12-15.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=College_health&oldid=1248718135#Anxiety_disorders"