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-{{sociology}}
-'''Anomie''' is a [[sociology|sociological]] term meaning "personal feeling of a lack of [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]]; [[normlessness]]". It describes the breakdown of social norms and [[Value (ethics)|value]]s.<ref>[http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/05/13/chinas-school-killings-and-social-despair/?ref=world NYtimes blogs]</ref> It was popularized by French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] in his influential book ''[[Suicide (book)|Suicide]]'' (1897). Durkheim borrowed the word from French philosopher [[Jean-Marie Guyau]].
-For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition:
-{{quote
-| Anomie in common parlance is thought to mean something like "at loose ends". The Oxford English Dictionary lists a range of definitions, beginning with a disregard of divine law, through the 19th and 20th century sociological terms meaning an absence of accepted social standards or values. Most sociologists associate the term with Durkheim, who used the concept to speak of the ways in which an individual's actions are matched, or integrated, with a system of social norms and practices ... Durkheim also formally posited anomie as a mismatch, not simply as the absence of norms. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, a mismatch between individual circumstances and larger social mores. Thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed, when there is ... no free horizon of expectation.
-| <ref name="quot0">Susan Leigh Star, Geoffrey C. Bowker, and Laura J. Neumann, "Transparency At Different Levels of Scale: Convergence between Information Artifacts and Social Worlds", Library and Information Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, August 1997</ref>
-}}
-== History ==
-In 1893, Durkheim introduced the concept of ''anomie'' to describe the mismatch of collective guild labor to evolving societal needs when the guild was homogeneous in its constituency. He equated homogeneous (redundant) skills to ''mechanical solidarity'' whose inertia retarded adaptation. He contrasted this with the self-regulating behavior of a division of labor based on differences in constituency, equated to ''organic solidarity'', whose lack of inertia made it differentially sensitive to need changes.
-Durkheim observed that these two labour forms could not co-exist. The conflict between the evolved organic division of labor and the homogeneous mechanical type was such that one could not long exist in the presence of the other: "This social type rests on principles so different from the preceding that it can develop only in proportion to the effacement of that preceding type".<ref name="quot1">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 182</ref> and "The history of these two types shows, in effect, that one has progressed only as the other has retrogressed".<ref name="quot2">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 183</ref> When solidarity is organic, anomie is "impossible whenever solidary organs are sufficiently in contact or sufficiently prolonged. In effect, being contiguous, they are quickly warned, in each circumstance, of the need they have of one another, and, consequently, they have a lively and continuous sentiment of their mutual dependence. For the same reason that exchanges take place among them easily, they take place frequently, and in time the work of consolidation is achieved".<ref name="quot3">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 368</ref> Their sensitivity to mutual needs promotes the evolution in the division of labor "because the smallest reaction can be felt from one part to another. ... they foresee and fix, in detail, the conditions of equilibrium".<ref name="quot3" /> "Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the extent of the needs to be satisfied. Equilibrium is established without any trouble and production regulates itself."<ref name="quot4">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 368</ref> Durkheim contrasted the condition of anomie as being the result of mechanical solidarity: "But on the contrary, if some opaque environment is interposed, then only stimuli of certain intensity can be communicated from one organ to another. Relations being rare, are not repeated enough to be determined; each time there ensues new grouping. The lines of passage taken by the streams of movement cannot deepen because the streams themselves are too intermittent".<ref name="quot5">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 368,369</ref> "Contact is no longer sufficient. The producer can no longer embrace the market at a glance, nor even in thought. He can no longer see its limits, since it is, so to speak limitless. Accordingly, production becomes unbridled and unregulated."<ref name="quot6">The Division of Labor in Society, The MacMillan Co. 1933, Free Press edition, 1964, p. 370</ref>
-Durkheim's use of the term anomie was about a phenomenon of industrialization—mass-regimentation that could not adapt due to its own inertia—its resistance to change, which causes disruptive cycles of collective behavior (e.g. economics) due to the necessity of a prolonged buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia.
-Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. But such normlessness or norm-rigidity was a ''symptom of anomie'', caused by the lack of differential adaptation that would enable norms to evolve naturally due to self regulation, either to develop norms where none existed or to change norms that had become rigid and obsolete.
-== Etymology ==
-{{See also|Antinomianism}}
-The word comes from [[Greek language|Greek]], namely the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] ''a-'' "without", and ''nomos'' "law". The Greeks distinguished between ''nomos'' (νόμος, "law"), and ''arché'' (αρχή, "starting rule, axiom, principle"). For example, a [[monarch]] is a single ruler but he or she might still be subject to, and not exempt from, the prevailing laws, i.e. ''nomos''. In the original [[city state]] [[democracy]], the [[majority rule]] was an aspect of ''arché'' because it was a rule-based, customary system which might or might not make laws, i.e. ''nomos''. Thus, the original meaning of ''anomie'' defined anything or anyone against or outside the law, or a condition where the current laws were not applied resulting in a state of illegitimacy or lawlessness.
-The contemporary English understanding of the word ''anomie'' can accept greater flexibility in the word "[[norm (sociology)|norm]]", and some have used the idea of [[normlessness]] to reflect a similar situation to the idea of [[Anarchism|anarchy]]. But, as used by [[Émile Durkheim]] and later theorists, ''anomie'' is a reaction against or a retreat from the regulatory [[social control]]s of [[society]], and is a completely separate concept from anarchy which is an absence of effective rulers or leaders.
-== As social disorder ==
-The nineteenth century [[France|French]] pioneer [[sociologist]] [[Émile Durkheim]] borrowed the word from French philosopher [[Jean-Marie Guyau]] and used it in his influential book ''[[Suicide (book)|Suicide]]'' (1897), outlining the [[social]] (and not individual) causes of [[suicide]], characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values (referred to as normlessness), and an associated feeling of [[Social alienation|alienation]] and [[purpose]]lessness. He believed that ''anomie'' is common when the surrounding society has undergone significant changes in its economic fortunes, whether for good or for worse and, more generally, when there is a significant discrepancy between the ideological theories and values commonly professed and what was actually achievable in everyday life. This is contrary to previous theories on suicide which generally maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a person's life and their subsequent [[clinical depression|depression]].
-In Durkheim's view, traditional [[religion]]s often provided the basis for the shared values which the anomic individual lacks. Furthermore, he argued that the [[division of labor]] that had been prevalent in economic life since the [[Industrial Revolution]] led individuals to pursue [[egoism|egoistic]] ends rather than seeking the good of a larger community. [[Robert King Merton]] also adopted the idea of ''anomie'' to develop [[Strain theory (sociology)|Strain Theory]], defining it as the discrepancy between common social goals and the legitimate means to attain those goals. In other words, an individual suffering from ''anomie'' would strive to attain the common goals of a specific society yet would not be able to reach these goals legitimately because of the [[structuralism|structural]] limitations in society. As a result the individual would exhibit [[deviant behavior]]. [[Friedrich Hayek]] notably uses the word ''anomie'' with this meaning.
-According to one academic survey, psychometric testing confirmed a link between anomie on academic dishonesty among university students suggesting that universities needed to foster codes of ethics among students in order to curb it.<ref>The effect of anomie on academic dishonesty among university students by Albert Caruana, B. Ramaseshan, Michael T. Ewing. Journal: International Journal of Educational Management Year: 2000 Volume: 14 Issue: 1 Page: 23 - 30</ref> In another it was seen as a "push factor" in tourism.<ref>Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism by Graham M. S. Dann, Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 4, Issue 4, March-April 1977, Pages 184-194.</ref>
-As an older variant, the [[Webster 1913]] dictionary reports use of the word ''anomie'' as meaning "disregard or violation of the law"<ref>Anomie, authoritarianism, and prejudice: A replication by AH Roberts, M Rokeach - American Journal of Sociology, 1956</ref> but anomie as a social disorder is not to be confused with ''[[anarchy]]''. Proponents of [[anarchism]] claim that anarchy does not necessarily lead to ''anomie'' and that hierarchical command actually increases lawlessness. Some subsets of anarchism, such as [[anarcho-primitivism]] argue in works such as [[Industrial Society and Its Future]] that conditions such as anomie are directly caused by complex societies, particularly industrial and post-industrial societies due to their deprivation of individual self-determination and a relatively small reference group to relate to, such as the band, clan, or tribe.
-== In literature, film, and theater ==
-In [[Albert Camus]]'s [[existentialism|existentialist]] [[novel]] ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'', the bored, alienated protagonist [[Meursault]] struggles to construct an individual system of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely in a state of ''anomie'', as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening lines: ''{{lang|fr|"Aujourd’hui, maman est morte. Ou peut-être hier, je ne sais pas"}}'' ("Today mother died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know".). When Mersault is prosecuted for shooting an Arab man during a fight, the prosecuting attorneys seem more interested in the inability or unwillingness of Meursault to cry at his mother's funeral than the murder of the Arab, because they find his lack of remorse offensive. The novel ends with Meursault recognizing the universe's indifference toward humankind. In the first half of the novel Meursault is clearly an unreflecting, unapologetic individual. Ultimately, Camus presents the world as essentially [[Meaning of life|meaningless]] and therefore, the only way to arrive at any meaning or purpose is to make it oneself.
-[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], whose work is often considered a philosophical precursor to [[existentialism]], often expressed a similar concern in his novels. In ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', it is expressed more than once by different characters that in the absence of God and immortal life, everything would be lawful. That one can do as one likes. The novel explores the existence of [[God]], the nature of truth, and the importance of forgiveness through the actions of its characters. [[Raskolnikov]], the [[anti-hero]] of Dostoevsky’s novel ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', puts this philosophy into action when he kills an elderly pawnbroker and her sister, later rationalizing this act to himself with the words, "...it wasn’t a human being I killed, it was a principle!" Raskolnikov's inner conflict in the opening section of the novel results in a utilitarian-altruistic justification for the proposed crime: why not kill a wretched and "useless" old moneylender to alleviate the human misery?
-[[Hermann Hesse]]'s ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Der Steppenwolf]]'' also expresses a picture of anomie.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} The novel tells the story of a middle-aged man named Harry Haller who is beset with reflections on his being ill-suited for the world of "everybody", the regular people. In his aimless wanderings about the city he is given a book which describes the two natures of man: one "high", spiritual and "human"; while the other is "low" and animal-like. Thus, man is entangled in an irresolvable struggle, never content with either nature because he cannot see beyond this self-made construct. While Haller longs to live free from social convention, he continually lives as a bourgeois bachelor. Haller argues that the men of the [[Dark Ages]] did not suffer more than those of the [[Classical Antiquity]], and vice-versa. It is rather those who live between two times, those who do not know what to follow, that suffer the most. In this token, a man from the Dark Ages living in the Classical Antiquity, or the opposite, would undergo a gulping sadness and [[agony]].
-The characters Vladimir and Estragon in [[Samuel Beckett|Samuel Beckett's]] absurdist play ''[[Waiting For Godot]]'' express a sense of anomie.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} The play follows two consecutive days in the lives of a pair of men who divert themselves while they wait expectantly and unsuccessfully for someone named Godot to arrive. Frustrated at the long wait, they think of what to do to pass the time. Estragon suggests that they [[hanging|hang]] themselves, but since they are concerned that they might not both die, they decide to do nothing: "It's safer", explains Estragon. Another character, Lucky, describes an impersonal and callous God, asserts that man 'wastes and pines', mourns an inhospitable earth, and claims that man diminishes in a world that does not nurture him".<ref>Brown, V., ''[http://etd.unisa.ac.za/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-03022006-154713/unrestricted/thesis.pdf Yesterday's Deformities: A Discussion of the Role of Memory and Discourse in the Plays of Samuel Beckett]'', (doctoral thesis), p. 92.</ref> The play illustrates an attitude toward man's experience on earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of human experience that can only be reconciled in mind and art of the absurdist.
-It could be argued that all of [[Osamu Dazai]]'s works, reflecting his views, contain a sense of anomie. Himself a social outcast, his books have a strong focus on characters estranged in some way from regular society and its prescriptions.
-The Yugoslav film ''[[When I Am Dead and Gone]]'' (1967) is a relentless portrayal of anomie throughout the contemporary Yugoslav society, experiencing rapid industrialization and urbanization. The main character seeks to settle down in an environment where all norms are habitually broken.
-== See also ==
-* [[Accidie]]
-* [[Antinomianism]]
-* [[Existentialism]]
-* [[Mass society]]
-* [[Nihilism]]
-* [[Relativism]]
-* [[Social alienation]]
-== References ==
-{{refs}}
-== Bibliography ==
-* Durkheim, Émile. (1893). ''The Division of Labour in Society''
-* Durkheim, Émile. (1897). ''[[Suicide (book)|Suicide]]''
-* Marco Orru. "The Ethics of Anomie: Jean Marie Guyau and Émile Durkheim", ''British Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 34, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp.&nbsp;499–518
-* Riba, Jordi (1999). ''La Morale Anomique de Jean-Marie Guyau'. L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2738477729
-== External links ==
-{{Wiktionary}}
-* [http://durkheim.itgo.com/anomie.html "Anomie"] discussed at the Émile Durkheim Archive.
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