Amphetamine: Difference between revisions
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do not take this drug epically diet pills that have this drug in because it will indeed show up on a drug test and do not use wikipedia wither because other people just like me click on edit and write whatever we wont to write so try another websiite this information is not accurate |
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{{Otheruses}} |
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{{Drugbox |
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| Watchedfields = changed |
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| verifiedrevid = 321804129 |
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| drug_name = Amphetamine |
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| IUPAC_name = (±)-1-phenylpropan-2-amine |
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| image = Amphetamine-2D-skeletal.svg |
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| imagename = 1 : 1 mixture (racemate)<br /> |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}} |
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| image2 = Amphetamine-3d-CPK.png |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}} |
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| InChI = 1/C9H13N/c1-8(10)7-9-5-3-2-4-6-9/h2-6,8H,7,10H2,1H3 |
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| InChIKey = KWTSXDURSIMDCE-UHFFFAOYAO |
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| CAS_number = 300-62-9 |
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| ChemSpiderID = 13852819 |
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| CAS_supplemental = {{CAS|405-41-4}} |
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| ATC_prefix = N06 |
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| ATC_suffix = BA01 |
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| PubChem = 3007 |
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| DrugBank = DB00182 |
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| synonyms = alpha-methylbenzeneethanamine, alpha-methylphenethylamine, beta-phenyl-isopropylamine |
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| smiles = NC(C)Cc1ccccc1 |
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| C = 9 | H = 13 | N = 1 |
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| molecular_weight = 135.2084 |
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| bioavailability = Oral 20-25%; nasal 75%; rectal 95–99%; intravenous 100% |
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| solubility = {{nowrap|50–100 mg/mL}} (16C°) |
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| melting_point = 285 |
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| melting_high = 281 |
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| protein_bound = 15–40% |
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| metabolism = [[Hepatic]] ([[CYP2D6]])<ref>{{cite journal |author=Miranda-G E, Sordo M, Salazar AM |title=Determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and hydroxyamphetamine derivatives in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and its relation to CYP2D6 phenotype of drug users |journal=J Anal Toxicol |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=31–6 |year=2007 |pmid=17389081 |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0146-4760&volume=31&issue=1&spage=31&aulast=Miranda-G}}</ref> |
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| elimination_half-life = 12h average for d-isomer, 13h for l-isomer |
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| excretion = [[Renal]]; significant portion unaltered |
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| pregnancy_US = C |
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| legal_AU = Schedule 8 |
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| legal_CA = Schedule III |
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| legal_UK = Class B |
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| legal_NL = List I |
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| legal_US = Schedule II |
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| legal_status = Rx-only |
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| routes_of_administration = [[Oral]], [[Intravenous]], [[Vaporization]], [[Insufflation (medicine)|Insufflation]], [[Rectal]], [[Sublingual]] |
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}} |
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'''Amphetamine''' ([[United States Adopted Name|USAN]]) or '''amfetamine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) is a [[psychostimulant]] [[drug]] that is known to produce increased [[wakefulness]] and [[focus]] in association with decreased [[Fatigue (medical)|fatigue]] and [[appetite]]. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as [[methamphetamine]] and [[lisdexamfetamine]] which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] in the brain, inducing [[euphoria]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Drevets, W et al |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |month= |title=Amphetamine-Induced Dopamine Release in Human Ventral Striatum Correlates with Euphoria |journal=Psychiatry |volume=49 |issue= |pages=81–96 |id= |url=http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~knutson/rab/drevets01.pdf |accessdate=23 May 2009 |quote= }}</ref><ref>Rang and Dale, Pharmacology</ref> The group includes prescription [[Central nervous system|CNS]] drugs commonly used to treat [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD). It is also used to treat symptoms of [[traumatic brain injury]] and the daytime drowsiness symptoms of [[narcolepsy]], [[Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome]] and [[chronic fatigue syndrome]]. Initially, amphetamine was more popularly used to [[anorectic|diminish the appetite]] and to control weight. Brand names of the drugs that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include '''[[Adderall]]''', '''[[Vyvanse]]''', and '''[[Dexedrine]]''', as well as '''[[Benzedrine]]''' in the past. |
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The drug is also used [[Recreational drug use|recreationally]] and as a [[performance enhancer]]. Recreational users of amphetamine have coined numerous euphemisms for amphetamine, such as '''speed''' and '''crank'''. The [[European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction]] reports the typical retail price of amphetamine in [[Europe]] varied between €10 and €15 ($14.38 to $21.55 [[United States Dollar|USD]]) a gram in half of the reporting countries.<ref>{{cite book |author=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |title=Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe |year=2008 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |location=Luxembourg |isbn=978-92-9168-324-6 |pages=48 |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64227_EN_EMCDDA_AR08_en.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> The name ''amphetamine'' is derived from its chemical name: '''a'''lpha-[[methyl group|'''m'''ethyl]][[phenethylamine|'''ph'''en'''et'''hyl'''amine''']]. |
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==History== |
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Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the [[Romania]]n chemist [[Lazăr Edeleanu]] in [[Berlin|Berlin, Germany]].<ref>Edeleanu L. "Uber einige Derivate der Phenylmethacrylsaure und der Phenylisobuttersaure". Ber Deutsch Chem Ges. 1887;Vol 20:616.</ref> He named the compound phenylisopropylamine. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative [[ephedrine]], which had been isolated from Ma-Huang that same year by [[Nagayoshi Nagai]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Shulgin |first= Alexander |authorlink= Alexander Shulgin |coauthors= Shulgin, Ann |title= [[PiHKAL]] |year= 1992 |publisher= Transform Press |location= Berkeley, California |isbn= 0-9630096-0-5 |pages= 39 |chapter= 6 – MMDA }}</ref> No pharmacological use was found for amphetamine until 1927, when pioneer [[psychopharmacology|psychopharmacologist]] Gordon Alles resynthesized and tested it on himself, in search of an artificial replacement for ephedrine. From 1933 or 1934 [[Smith, Kline and French]] began selling the volatile base form of the drug as an [[inhaler]] under the [[trade name]] [[Benzedrine]], useful as a decongestant but readily usable for non-medical purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasmussen N |title=Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950 |journal=J Hist Med Allied Sci |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=288–323 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16492800 |doi=10.1093/jhmas/jrj039 |url=}}</ref> One of the first attempts at using amphetamine as a scientific study was done by M. H. Nathanson, a Los Angeles physician, in 1935. He studied the subjective effects of amphetamine in 55 hospital workers who were each given 20 mg of Benzedrine. The two most commonly reported drug effects were "a sense of well being and a feeling of exhilaration" and "lessened fatigue in reaction to work".<ref>Iverson, Leslie. Speed, Ecstacy, Ritalin: the science of amphetamines. Oxford, New York. Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref> During World War II amphetamine was extensively used to combat fatigue and increase alertness in soldiers. After decades of reported abuse, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamine to prescription use in 1965, but non-medical use remained common. Amphetamine became a schedule II drug under the [[Controlled Substances Act]] in 1971. |
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The related compound [[methamphetamine]] was first synthesized from [[ephedrine]] in [[Japan]] in 1918 by chemist [[Akira Ogata]], via reduction of ephedrine using [[red phosphorus]] and [[iodine]]. The pharmaceutical [[Pervitin]] was a tablet of {{nowrap|3 mg}} methamphetamine which was available in Germany from 1938 and widely used in the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'', but by mid-1941 it became a controlled substance, partly because of the amount of time needed for a soldier to rest and recover after use and partly because of abuse. For the rest of the war, military doctors continued to issue the drug, but less frequently and with increasing discrimination.<ref>{{cite book |last= Rasmussen |first= Nicolas |authorlink= |title= On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine |year= 2008 |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York, New York |isbn= 0-8147-7601-9 |chapter= Ch. 4 }}</ref> |
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In 1997 and 1998,<ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377–1380</ref><ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Erik Allen Burt, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249–254</ref> researchers at [[Texas A&M University]] claimed to have found amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two [[Acacia]] species native to [[Texas]], ''[[Acacia berlandieri|A. berlandieri]]'' and ''[[Acacia rigidula|A. rigidula]]''. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions. These findings have never been duplicated, and the analyses are believed by many biochemists to be the result of experimental error, and as such the validity of the report has come into question. [[Alexander Shulgin]], one of the most experienced biochemical investigators and the discoverer of many new psychotropic substances, has tried to contact the Texas A&M researchers and verify their findings. The authors of the paper have not responded; natural amphetamine remains most likely a false discovery.<ref>[http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/shulgin/adsarchive/acacia.htm Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine]</ref> |
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==Contraindications== |
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Amphetamine elevates cardiac output and blood pressure making it dangerous for use by patients with a history of [[heart disease]] or [[hypertension]]. Amphetamine can cause a life-threatening complication in patients taking [[MAOI]] antidepressants. The use of amphetamine and amphetamine-like drugs is contraindicated in patients with narrow-angle [[glaucoma]] or anatomically narrow angles. Like other [[sympathomimetic]] amines, amphetamine can induce transient [[mydriasis]]. In patients with narrow angles, pupillary dilation can provoke an acute attack of angle-closure glaucoma. These agents should also be avoided in patients with other forms of glaucoma, as mydriasis may occasionally increase intraocular pressure.<ref>[http://www.drugs.com/disease-interactions/amphetamine.html ''Amphetamine Disease Interactions - Drugs.com'']</ref> |
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Amphetamine has been shown to pass through into breast milk. Because of this, mothers taking amphetamine are advised to avoid breastfeeding during their course of treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2004/021303s005lbl.pdf |title=ADDERALL XR capsule |accessdate=2009-07-24 |first=[[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] |year=2005 |format=PDF }}</ref> |
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Many women who use amphetamine find that their periods become irregular or even stop. Both amphetamine and [[combined oral contraceptive pill]] increase [[blood pressure]] which in the long term can affect the [[heart]], [[blood vessels]] and [[liver]]. Furthermore, amphetamine can inhibit the effects of the contraceptive pill which may cause it to work less effectively. The weight loss sometimes associated with amphetamine use may also cause the contraceptive cap or [[Diaphragm (contraceptive)|diaphragm]] to be less effective as it will not fit as well.<ref>[http://www.wecarethechildren.org.uk/amphet.html ''Amphetamines'']</ref> |
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==Major neurobiological mechanisms== |
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===Primary sites of action=== |
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Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by modulating several key neurotransmitters in the brain, including [[dopamine]], [[serotonin]], and [[norepinephrine]]. However, the activity of amphetamine throughout the brain appears to be specific;<ref name="JonesKornblum">{{cite journal |author=Jones S, Kornblum JL, Kauer JA |title=Amphetamine blocks long-term synaptic depression in the ventral tegmental area |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=20 |issue=15 |pages=5575–80 |year=2000 |month=August |pmid=10908593 |doi= |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10908593}}</ref> certain receptors that respond to amphetamine in some regions of the brain tend not to do so in other regions. For instance, [[dopamine]] [[Dopamine receptor|D2 receptors]] in the [[hippocampus]], a region of the brain associated with forming new memories, appear to be unaffected by the presence of amphetamine.<ref name="JonesKornblum" /> |
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The major neural systems affected by amphetamine are largely implicated in the brain’s reward circuitry. Moreover, neurotransmitters involved in various reward pathways of the brain appear to be the primary targets of amphetamine.<ref name="pmid17437">{{cite journal |author=Moore KE |title=The actions of amphetamine on neurotransmitters: a brief review |journal=Biol. Psychiatry |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=451–62 |year=1977 |month=June |pmid=17437 |doi= |url=}}</ref> One such neurotransmitter is [[dopamine]], a chemical messenger heavily active in the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] and [[Mesocortical pathway|mesocortical]] reward pathways. Not surprisingly, the anatomical components of these pathways—including the [[striatum]], the [[nucleus accumbens]], and the [[ventral striatum]]—have been found to be primary sites of amphetamine action.<ref name="DelArco">{{cite journal |author=Del Arco A, González-Mora JL, Armas VR, Mora F |title=Amphetamine increases the extracellular concentration of glutamate in striatum of the awake rat: involvement of high affinity transporter mechanisms |journal=Neuropharmacology |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=943–54 |year=1999 |month=July |pmid=10428413 |doi=10.1016/S0028-3908(99)00043-X |url=}}</ref><ref name="Drevets">{{cite journal |author=Drevets WC, Gautier C, Price JC |title=Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria |journal=Biol. Psychiatry |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=81–96 |year=2001 |month=January |pmid=11164755 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01038-6 |url=}}</ref> |
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The fact that amphetamine influences neurotransmitter activity specifically in regions implicated in reward provides insight into the behavioral consequences of the drug, such as the stereotyped onset of [[euphoria]].<ref name="Drevets" /> A better understanding of the specific mechanisms by which amphetamine operates may increase our ability to treat amphetamine [[Substance_use_disorder|addiction]], as the brain’s reward circuitry has been widely implicated in addictions of many types.<ref>Wise, RA. “Brain reward circuitry and addiction.” Program and abstracts of the American Society of Addiction Medicine 2003 The State of the Art in Addiction Medicine; October 30-November 1, 2003; Washington, DC. Session</ref> |
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===Endogenous amphetamines=== |
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Amphetamine has been found to have several endogenous analogues; that is, molecules of a similar structure found naturally in the brain.<ref name="Sulzer">{{cite journal |author=Sulzer D, Chen TK, Lau YY, Kristensen H, Rayport S, Ewing A |title=Amphetamine redistributes dopamine from synaptic vesicles to the cytosol and promotes reverse transport |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 2 |pages=4102–8 |year=1995 |month=May |pmid=7751968 |doi= |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751968}}</ref> l-[[Phenylalanine]] and β-[[Phenethylamine]] are two examples, which are formed in the peripheral nervous system as well as in the brain itself. These molecules are thought to modulate levels of excitement and alertness, among other related affective states. |
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===Dopamine=== |
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Perhaps the most widely studied neurotransmitter with regard to amphetamine action is [[dopamine]], the “reward neurotransmitter” that is highly active in numerous reward pathways of the brain. Various studies have shown that in select regions, amphetamine increases the concentrations of [[dopamine]] in the [[synaptic cleft]], thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron.<ref name="Kuczenski">{{cite journal |author=Kuczenski R, Segal DS |title=Effects of methylphenidate on extracellular dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine: comparison with amphetamine |journal=J. Neurochem. |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=2032–7 |year=1997 |month=May |pmid=9109529 |doi=10.1046/j.1471-4159.1997.68052032.x |url= |doi_brokendate=2008-12-29}}</ref> This specific action hints at the hedonic response to the drug as well as to the drug’s addictive quality. |
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The specific mechanisms by which amphetamine affects dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively. Currently, two major hypotheses have been proposed, which are not mutually exclusive. One theory emphasizes amphetamine’s actions on the [[Synaptic vesicle|vesicular]] level, increasing concentrations of [[dopamine]] in the [[cytosol]] of the pre-synaptic neuron.<ref name="Sulzer" /><ref name="pmid17105921">{{cite journal |author=Rothman RB, Baumann MH |title=Balance between dopamine and serotonin release modulates behavioral effects of amphetamine-type drugs |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1074 |issue= |pages=245–60 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=17105921 |doi=10.1196/annals.1369.064 |url=}}</ref> The other focuses on the role of the dopamine transporter [[dopamine transporter|DAT]], and proposes that amphetamine may interact with [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] to induce reverse transport of [[dopamine]] from the presynaptic neuron into the [[synaptic cleft]].<ref name="pmid17437"/><ref name="Regulation">{{cite journal |author=Johnson LA, Guptaroy B, Lund D, Shamban S, Gnegy ME |title=Regulation of amphetamine-stimulated dopamine efflux by protein kinase C beta |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=280 |issue=12 |pages=10914–9 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15647254 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M413887200 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Kahlig">{{cite journal |author=Kahlig KM, Binda F, Khoshbouei H |title=Amphetamine induces dopamine efflux through a dopamine transporter channel |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=9 |pages=3495–500 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15728379 |pmc=549289 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407737102 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Overload">Public Library of Science. “A mechanism for amphetamine-induced dopamine overload.” PLoS Biol. 3 (2004).</ref> |
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The former hypothesis is backed by data demonstrating that injections of amphetamine result in rapid increases of cytosolic dopamine concentrations.<ref name="Overload" /> Amphetamine is believed to interact with dopamine-containing synaptic vesicles in the [[axon terminal]]. Amphetamine is a substrate for a specific neuronal synaptic vesicle uptake transporter called [[vesicle monoamine transporter 2|VMAT2]]. When amphetamine is taken up by [[vesicle monoamine transporter 2|VMAT2]], the vesicle releases dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange. The redistributed [[dopamine]] is then believed to interact with [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] to promote reverse transport.<ref name="Sulzer" /> Calcium may be a key molecule involved in the interactions between amphetamine and VMATs.<ref name="pmid17105921"/> |
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The latter hypothesis postulates a direct interaction between amphetamine and the [[dopamine transporter|DAT]]. The activity of [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] is believed to depend on specific phosphorylating kinases, such as [[protein kinase c]], specifically [[PRKCB1|PKC-β]].<ref name="Overload" /> Upon phosphorylation, [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] undergoes a conformational change that results in the transportation of DAT-bound [[dopamine]] from the extracellular to the intracellular environment.<ref name="Kahlig"/> In the presence of amphetamine, however, [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] has been observed to function in reverse, spitting dopamine out of the presynaptic neuron and into the [[synaptic cleft]].<ref name="Regulation" /> Thus, beyond inhibiting reuptake of [[dopamine]], amphetamine also stimulates the release of [[dopamine]] molecules into the synapse.<ref name="pmid17437"/> |
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In support of the above hypothesis, it has been found that [[PRKCB1|PKC-β]] inhibitors eliminate the effects of amphetamine on extracellular [[dopamine]] concentrations in the striatum of rats.<ref name="Overload" /> This data suggests that the [[PRKCB1|PKC-β]] kinase may represent a key point of interaction between amphetamine and the [[dopamine transporter|DAT]] transporter. |
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===Serotonin=== |
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Amphetamine has been found to exert similar effects on [[serotonin]] as on [[dopamine]].<ref name="JonesKauer">{{cite journal |author=Jones S, Kauer JA |title=Amphetamine depresses excitatory synaptic transmission via serotonin receptors in the ventral tegmental area |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=19 |issue=22 |pages=9780–7 |year=1999 |month=November |pmid=10559387 |doi= |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10559387}}</ref> Like [[dopamine transporter|DAT]], the serotonin transporter [[serotonin transporter|SERT]] can be induced to operate in reverse upon stimulation by amphetamine.<ref name="Hilber">{{cite journal |author=Hilber B, Scholze P, Dorostkar MM |title=Serotonin-transporter mediated efflux: a pharmacological analysis of amphetamines and non-amphetamines |journal=Neuropharmacology |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=811–9 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16185723 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.08.008 |url=}}</ref> This mechanism is thought to rely on the actions of calcium ions, as well as on the proximity of certain transporter proteins.<ref name="Hilber" /> |
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The interaction between amphetamine and [[serotonin]] is only apparent in particular regions of the brain, such as the [[mesocortical pathway|mesocorticolimbic projection]]. Recent studies additionally postulate that amphetamine may indirectly alter the behavior of [[glutamatergic system|glutamatergic]] pathways extending from the [[ventral tegmental area]] to the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="JonesKauer" /> [[glutamatergic system|Glutamatergic]] pathways are strongly correlated with increased excitability at the level of the synapse. Increased extracellular concentrations of [[serotonin]] may thus modulate the excitatory activity of glutamatergic neurons.<ref name="JonesKauer" /> |
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The proposed ability of amphetamine to increase excitability of [[glutamatergic system|glutamatergic]] pathways may be of significance when considering serotonin-mediated addiction.<ref name="JonesKauer" /> An additional behavioral consequence may be the stereotyped locomotor stimulation that occurs in response to amphetamine exposure.<ref name="Kuczenski" /> |
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===Other relevant neurotransmitters=== |
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Several other neurotransmitters have been linked to amphetamine activity. For instance, extracellular levels of [[glutamate]], the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase upon exposure to amphetamine. Consistent with other findings, this effect was found in the areas of the brain implicated in reward; namely, the [[nucleus accumbens]], [[striatum]], and [[prefrontal cortex]]. |
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Additionally, several studies demonstrate increased levels of [[norepinephrine]], a neurotransmitter related to [[adrenaline]], in response to amphetamine. This is believed to occur via reuptake blockage as well as via interactions with the norepinephrine neuronal transport carrier.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Florin SM, Kuczenski R, Segal DS |title=Regional extracellular norepinephrine responses to amphetamine and cocaine and effects of clonidine pretreatment |journal=Brain Res. |volume=654 |issue=1 |pages=53–62 |year=1994 |month=August |pmid=7982098 |doi=10.1016/0006-8993(94)91570-9 |url=}}</ref> |
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==Pharmacology== |
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===Chemical properties=== |
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[[File:Amphetamine-2D-skeletal.svg|thumb|200px200px|Amphetamine molecular structure. [[Methamphetamine]] has the same structure, with the addition of a [[methyl group]] attached to the nitrogen.]] |
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[[Image:Methamphetamines.PNG|thumb|A chart comparing the chemical structures of different [[Template:Amphetamines|amphetamine derivatives]]]] |
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Amphetamine is a [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] compound. The [[racemic]] mixture can be divided into its optical isomers: levo- and [[dextroamphetamine|dextro-amphetamine]]. Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, comprising a broad range of psychoactive [[derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s, from [[empathogens]], [[3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA (3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine)]] and [[MDMA|MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine)]] known as ecstasy, to the ''N''-methylated form, [[methamphetamine]] known as 'meth', and to decongestants such as [[Ephedrine|ephedrine (EPH)]] . Amphetamine is a [[homologous series|homologue]] of [[phenethylamine]]. |
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At first, the medical drug came as the salt racemic-amphetamine sulfate (racemic-amphetamine contains both isomers in equal amounts). Attention disorders are often treated using [[Adderall]] or a generic equivalent, a formulation of mixed amphetamine and dextroamphetamine salts that contain<br> |
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*1/4 dextro-amphetamine saccharate |
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* 1/4 dextro-amphetamine sulfate |
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* 1/4 (racemic amphetamine) aspartate monohydrate |
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* 1/4 (racemic amphetamine) sulfate |
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===Pharmacodynamics=== |
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Amphetamine has been shown to both diffuse through the cell membrane and travel via the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT) to increase concentrations of [[dopamine]] in the neuronal terminal. |
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Amphetamine, both as d-amphetamine ([[dextroamphetamine]]) and l-amphetamine (or a racemic mixture of the two isomers), is believed to exert its effects by binding to the monoamine transporters and increasing extracellular levels of the biogenic amines [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]] (noradrenaline) and [[serotonin]]. It is hypothesized that d-amphetamine acts primarily on the dopaminergic systems, while l-amphetamine is comparatively norepinephrinergic (noradrenergic). The primary reinforcing and behavioral-stimulant effects of amphetamine, however, are linked to enhanced dopaminergic activity, primarily in the mesolimbic [[dopamine system]]. |
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Amphetamine and other amphetamine-type stimulants principally act to release dopamine into the [[synaptic cleft]]. Amphetamine, unlike similar dopamine acting stimulant cocaine, does not act as a ligand but does slow reuptake by a secondary acting mechanism through the phosphorylation of dopamine transporters.<ref>[http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:BaDklpuwbTQJ:wiki.answers.com/Q/Does_Namenda_memantine_work_in_preventing_tolerance_to_adderall_ADD_amphetamine_type_drugs&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=10&gl=us WikiAnswers google cached page: 'Does Namenda memantine work in preventing tolerance to adderall ADD amphetamine type drugs?']</ref> The primary action is through the increased amphetamine concentration which releases endogenous stores of dopamine from [[vesicular monoamine transporters]] (VMATs), thereby increasing intra-neuronal concentrations of transmitter. This increase in concentration effectively reverses transport of dopamine via the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT) into the synapse.<ref name="review">{{cite journal |author=Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A |title=Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review |journal=Prog. Neurobiol. |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=406–33 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15955613 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003 |url=}}</ref> In addition, amphetamine binds reversibly to the DATs and blocks the transporter's ability to clear DA from the synaptic space. Amphetamine also acts in this way with norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and to a lesser extent serotonin. |
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In addition, amphetamine binds to a group of receptors called Trace Amine Associated Receptors ([[TAAR]]).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Reese EA, Bunzow JR, Arttamangkul S, Sonders MS, Grandy DK |title=Trace amine-associated receptor 1 displays species-dependent stereoselectivity for isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, and para-hydroxyamphetamine |journal=J Pharmacol Exp Ther. |volume=321 |issue=1 |pages=178–86 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17218486 |doi=10.1124/jpet.106.115402 |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/321/1/178}}</ref> TAAR are a newly discovered receptor system which seems to be affected by a range of amphetamine-like substances called [[trace amines]]. |
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==Effects== |
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===Physical effects=== |
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Physical effects of amphetamine can include reduced appetite, increased/distorted sensations, [[hyperactivity]], [[dilated pupils]], [[Flushing (physiology)|flushing]], [[restlessness]], [[dry mouth]], [[erectile dysfunction]], [[headache]], [[tachycardia]], increased breathing rate, increased [[blood pressure]], [[fever]], [[sweating]], [[diarrhea]], [[constipation]], [[blurred vision]], impaired speech, [[dizziness]], uncontrollable movements or shaking, [[insomnia]], [[numbness]], [[palpitations]], and [[arrhythmia]]. In high doses or chronic use [[convulsions]], dry or itchy skin, [[acne]], [[pallor]] can occur.<ref name="Erowid Amphetamines Vault: Effects">[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/amphetamines/amphetamines_effects.shtml Erowid Amphetamines Vault: Effects<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name = "strdbo">[http://www.xs4all.nl/~4david/amphetam.html Amphetamine; Facts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Amphetamines Amphetamines - Better Health Channel<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.add-adhd-help-center.com/adderall_side_effects.htm adderall xr, adderall medication, adderall side effects, adderall abuse<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Occasionally amphetamine use in males can cause an odd and sometimes startling effect in which the penis when flaccid appears to have shrunk due to [[vasoconstriction]]. Upon erection the penis returns to normal size.<ref>[http://www.thesite.org/drinkanddrugs/askthesiteqandas/drinkanddrugsqandas/dicksonspeed Whenever I take speed my penis appears to shrink. Is there a link? What's going on?]</ref> However, this may simply be an urban myth. "There are no published scientific reports which provide objective evidence that penile shrinkage occurs as an effect of amfetamine use."<ref>Bloor, R. N. "Whizz-Dick: Side Effect, Urban Myth or Amfetamine-related Koro-like Syndrome?" International Journal of Clinical Practice 58.7 (2004): 717-19. Web.</ref> |
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Young adults who abuse amphetamine may be at greater risk of suffering a [[heart attack]]. In a study published in the journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Westover AN, Nakonezny PA, Haley RW |title=Acute myocardial infarction in young adults who abuse amphetamines |journal=Drug Alcohol Dependence |volume=96 |issue=1-2 |pages=49–56 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18353567 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.027 |url= |pmc=2533107}}</ref> researchers examined data from more than 3 million people between 18 and 44 years old hospitalized from 2000 through 2003 in Texas. After controlling for [[cocaine]] abuse, alcohol abuse, tobacco use, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, lipid disorders, obesity, congenital defects, and coagulation defects, they found a relationship between a diagnosis of amphetamine abuse and heart attack.<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/541413/ Newswise: Study Finds Link Between Amphetamine Abuse and Heart Attacks in Young Adults] Retrieved on June 3, 2008.</ref> |
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===Psychological effects=== |
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Psychological effects can include [[euphoria]], [[anxiety]], increased [[libido]], [[alertness]], [[concentration]], [[energy]], [[self-esteem]], [[self-confidence]], [[sociability]], [[irritability]], [[aggression]], [[psychosomatic disorders]], [[psychomotor agitation]], [[hubris]], excessive feelings of [[Power (philosophy)|power]] and [[Wiktionary:superior|superiority]], repetitive and [[obsessive]] behaviors, [[paranoia]], and with chronic and/or high doses, [[amphetamine psychosis]] can occur.<ref name="Erowid Amphetamines Vault: Effects"/> |
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Based on a study in rats, Amphetamine use during adolescence may impair adult working [[memory]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.illinois.edu/news/09/1021amphetamine.html|title=Amphetamine use in adolescence may impair adult working memory|accessdate=2009-10-22}}</ref> |
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===Withdrawal effects=== |
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Withdrawal from chronic use of amphetamine can include [[anxiety]], [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], [[Fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], excessive [[sleeping]], increased appetite, short [[temper]], [[psychosis]] and [[suicide|suicidal thoughts]].<ref>[http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/a/amphetamine_withdrawal/symptoms.htm#symptom_list Symptoms of Amphetamine withdrawal - WrongDiagnosis.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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==Overdose== |
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An amphetamine overdose is rarely fatal but can lead to a number of different symptoms, including [[psychosis]], [[chest pain]], and [[hypertension]]. |
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===Psychosis=== |
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{{Main|Amphetamine psychosis}} |
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[[Amphetamine psychosis]] usually occurs at large doses only, but it has been known to occur in children taking therapeutic doses for the treatment of [[ADHD]]. |
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==Dependence and addiction== |
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{{main|Amphetamine dependence}} |
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[[Drug tolerance|Tolerance]] is developed rapidly in amphetamine abuse, thereby the amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the addiction needs to be increased at regular intervals.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse: Merck Manual Home Edition |
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| publisher = Merck |
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| url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec07/ch108/ch108g.html |
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| accessdate=February 28, 2007 |
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}}</ref> |
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==Performance-enhancing use== |
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Amphetamine is used by some college and high-school students as a study and test-taking aid.<ref>{{Cite web | publisher = JS Online | last = Twohey | first = Megan | title = Pills become an addictive study aid | accessdate = 2007-12-02 | date= 2006-03-25 | url = http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=410902}}</ref> Amphetamine works by increasing energy levels, concentration, and motivation, thus allowing students to study for an extended period of time. This drug is often acquired through ADHD prescriptions to students and peers, rather than illicitly produced drugs.<ref>{{Cite book |
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| title = The Illicit Market for ADHD Prescription Drugs in Queensland |
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| publisher = Queensland Crime and Misconduct Commission |
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| date = April 2002 |
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| url = http://www.cmc.qld.gov.au/data/portal/00000005/content/63420001125986217865.pdf |
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|format=PDF| accessdate =2008-01-13}}</ref> |
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Amphetamine has been, and is still, used by militaries around the world. British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the second world war<ref>De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: ''Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000</ref> and the RAF used so many that "[[Methedrine]] won the Battle of Britain" according to one report.<ref>Grant, D.N.W.; ''Air Force, UK, 1944</ref> American bomber pilots use amphetamine ("go pills") to stay awake during long missions. The [[Tarnak Farm incident]], in which an American [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] pilot killed several friendly Canadian soldiers on the ground, was blamed by the pilot on his use of amphetamine.<ref>{{cite news |title=Air force rushes to defend amphetamine use |url= http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/01/17/1042520778665.html |work=The Age |date= January 18, 2003|accessdate=26 January 2009}}</ref><!-- Please find a better source to support the preceding sentence. This one only tells half of the story. --> A nonjudicial hearing rejected the pilot's claim.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} |
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Amphetamine is also used by some professional,<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 434–451 | last = Yesalis | first = Charles E. | title = Anabolic Steroid and Stimulant Use in North American Sport between 1850 and 1980 | journal = Sport in History | accessdate = 2007-12-02 | date= 2005-12 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a727721070~db=all | doi = 10.1080/17460260500396251 | last2 = Bahrke | first2 = Michael}}</ref> collegiate<ref name="NCAA">{{Cite | publisher = National Collegiate Athletic Association | last = National Collegiate Athletic Association | title = NCAA Study of Substance Use Habits of College Student-Athletes | accessdate = 2007-12-02 | date= 2006-01 | url = http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/health-safety/drug_ed_progs/2005/DrugStudy2005_ExecutiveSummary.pdf |format=PDF| pages = 2–4, 11–13 }}</ref> and high school<ref name="NCAA" /> athletes for its strong stimulant effect. Energy levels are perceived to be dramatically increased and sustained, which is believed to allow for more vigorous and longer play. However, at least one study has found that this effect is not measurable.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF00697020 | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–287 | last = Margaria | first = R | title = The effect of some drugs on the maximal capacity of athletic performance in man | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology | date= 1964-07-01 | last2 = Aghemo | first2 = P. | last3 = Rovelli | first3 = E. |
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}}</ref> The use of amphetamine during strenuous physical activity can be extremely dangerous, especially when combined with alcohol, and athletes have died as a result, for example, British cyclist [[Tom Simpson]]. |
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Amphetamine use has historically been especially common among [[Major League Baseball]] players and is usually known by the slang term "greenies".<ref>{{Cite web |
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| last = Frias |
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| first = Carlos |
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| title = Baseball and amphetamines |
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| work = Palm Beach Post |
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| accessdate = 2007-12-02 |
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| date= 2006-04-02 |
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| url = http://www.palmbeachpost.com/sports/content/sports/epaper/2006/04/02/PBP_AMPHET_0402.html |
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}}</ref> In 2006, the MLB banned the use of amphetamine. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. However, the MLB has received some criticism because the consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for [[anabolic steroid]] use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing.<ref>{{Cite web |
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| last = Kreidler |
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| first = Mark |
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| title = Baseball finally brings amphetamines into light of day |
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| work = ESPN.com |
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| accessdate = 2007-12-02 |
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| date= 2005-11-15 |
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| url = http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/columns/story?columnist=kreidler_mark&id=2225013 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |
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| last = Klobuchar |
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| first = Jim |
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| title = Can baseball make a clean sweep? |
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| work = Christian Science Monitor |
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| accessdate = 2007-12-02 |
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| date= 2006-03-31 |
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| url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0331/p12s02-alsp.html |
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}}</ref><ref> |
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{{Cite web |
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| last = Associated Press |
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| title = MLB owners won't crack down on 'greenies' |
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| work = MSNBC.com |
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| accessdate = 2007-12-02 |
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| date= 2007-01-18 |
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| url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16691245/ |
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}}</ref> |
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Amphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers<ref>{{Cite book |
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| publisher = National Institute on Drug Abuse |
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| pages = 47–67 |
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| editors = Steven W. Gust (ed.) |
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| last = Lund |
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| first = Adrian K |
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| coauthors = David F. Preusser, Richard D. Blomberg, Allan F. Williams, J. Michael Walsh |
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| title = Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data |
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| chapter = Drug Use by Tractor-Trailer Drivers |
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| location = Rockville, MD |
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| series = National Institute on Drug Abuse Research |
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| accessdate = 2007-12-02 |
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| year= 1989 |
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| chapterurl = http://bib1lp1.rz.tu-bs.de/docportal/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/DocPortal_derivate_00002043/091.pdf?hosts=local#page=54 |
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|quote = This study has provided the first objective data regarding the use of potentially abusive drugs by tractor-trailer drivers... Prescription stimulants, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, and [[phentermine]] were found in 5 percent of the [317] drivers [who participated in the study], often in combination with similar but less potent stimulants, such as [[phenylpropanolamine]]. Nonprescription stimulants were detected in 12 percent of the drivers, about half of whom gave no medical explanation for their presence... One limitation of these findings is that 12 percent of the randomly selected drivers refused to participate in the study or provided insufficient urine and blood for testing; the distribution of drugs among these 42 drivers is unknown... Finally, the results apply to tractor-trailer drivers operating on a major east-west interstate route in Tennessee. Drug incidence among other truck-driver populations are unknown and may be higher or lower than reported here. (64)}}</ref> to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration during driving, especially in the decades prior to the signing by former [[U.S. President|president]] [[Ronald Reagan]] of Executive Order 12564, which initiated mandatory random drug testing of all truck drivers and employees of other DOT-regulated industries. Although implementation of the order on the trucking industry was kept to a gradual rate in consideration of its projected effects on the national economy, in the decades following the order, amphetamine and other drug abuse by truck drivers has since dropped drastically. (See also [[Truck_driver#Implementation_of_drug_detection|Truck driver—Implementation of drug detection]]). |
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===Detection in body fluids=== |
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Amphetamine is frequently measured in urine as part of a drug abuse testing program, in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims, or in whole blood to assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death. Techniques such as immunoassay may cross-react with a number of sympathomimetics drugs, so chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine should be employed to prevent false positive results. Chiral techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug, whether obtained legally (via prescription) or illicitly, or possibly as a result of formation from a prodrug such as lisdexamfetamine or selegiline. Chiral separation is needed to assess the possible contribution of l-methamphetamine (Vicks Inhaler) toward a positive test result.<ref>Verstraete AG, Heyden FV. Comparison of the sensitivity and specificity of six immunoassays for the detection of amphetamines in urine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29: 359-364, 2005.</ref><ref>Paul BD, Jemionek J, Lesser D, Jacobs A, Searles DA. Enantiomeric separation and quantitation of (+/-)-amphetamine, (+/-)-methamphetamine, (+/-)-MDA, (+/-)-MDMA, and (+/-)-MDEA in urine specimens by GC-EI-MS after derivatization with (R)-(-)- or (S)-(+)-alpha-methoxy-alpha-(trifluoromethy)phenylacetyl chloride (MTPA). J. Anal. Toxicol. 28: 449-455, 2004.</ref><ref>R. Baselt, ''Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man'', 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 83-86.</ref> |
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==Cultural impact of amphetamine== |
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The social and cultural impact of amphetamine has been, and continues to be, quite extensive. |
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From the 1960s onward, amphetamine has been popular with many [[youth subcultures]] in Britain (and other parts of the world) as a [[recreational drug]]. It has been commonly used by [[mod (subculture)|mods]], [[skinheads]], [[punks]], [[Goth subculture|goths]], gangstas, and [[casuals]] in all night soul and ska dances, punk concerts, [[basement show]]s and [[football hooliganism|fighting on the terraces]] by casuals. |
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The [[hippie]] [[counterculture]] was very critical of amphetamines due to the behaviors they cause; beat writer [[Allen Ginsberg]] wrote that users ran the risk of becoming a "Frankenstein speed freak".{{Citation needed|reason=The previous reference was to “Yablonsky 1968, pp. 243, 257”, but it's unclear what book that is.|date=February 2010}} |
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===In literature=== |
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The writers of the [[Beat Generation]] used amphetamine extensively, mainly under the [[Benzedrine]] [[brand name]]. [[Jack Kerouac]] was a particularly avid user of amphetamine, which was said to provide him with the stamina needed to work on his novels for extended periods of time.<ref>{{Cite web |
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| last = Gyenis |
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| first = Attila |
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| author-link = |
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| last2 = |
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| first2 = |
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| author2-link = |
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| title = Forty Years of ''On the Road'' 1957–1997 |
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| date = |
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| year = 1997 |
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| url = http://www.wordsareimportant.com/ontheroad.htm |
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| accessdate = 18 March 2008}}</ref> |
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Scottish author [[Irvine Welsh]] often portrays drug use in his novels, though in one of his journalism works he comments on how drugs (including amphetamine) have become part of consumerism and how his novels [[Trainspotting (novel)|Trainspotting]] and [[Porno (novel)|Porno]] reflect the changes in drug use and culture during the years that elapse between the two texts.<ref> |
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{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.irvinewelsh.net/journalism.aspx?jid=25 |
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|title=Drug Cultures in Trainspotting and Porno |
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|last=Welsh |
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|first=Irvine |
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|date=2006-08-10 |
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|publisher=irvinewelsh.net |
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|accessdate=2008-10-13}} |
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</ref> |
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Amphetamine is frequently mentioned in the work of American journalist [[Hunter S. Thompson]]. Speed appears not only amongst the astoundingly diverse and voluminous inventory of drugs Thompson consumed for what could broadly be defined as recreational purposes, but also receives frequent, explicit mention as an essential component of his writing toolkit,<ref>{{cite news |
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| last = Carr |
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| first = David |
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| coauthors = |
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| title = Fear and Loathing on a Documentary Screen |
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| work = |
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| pages = AR7 |
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| language = en-US |
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| publisher = New York ''Times'' |
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| date = 29 June 2008 |
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| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/29/movies/29carr.html |
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| accessdate = 18 March 2009}}</ref> such as in his "Author's Note" in ''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72]].''<ref>{{cite book |
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| last = Thompson |
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| first = Hunter S. |
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| authorlink = |
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| coauthors = |
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| title = [[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72]] |
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| publisher = Warner Books |
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| year = 1973 |
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| location = New York |
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| pages = 15–16, 21 |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| id = |
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| isbn = 0-446-31364-5}}</ref> |
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<!--I think this quote is too long, I propose cutting it: --> |
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<blockquote>"One afternoon about three days ago [the publishers] showed up at my door with no warning, and loaded about forty pounds of supplies into the room: two cases of Mexican beer, four quarts of gin, a dozen grapefruits, and enough speed to alter the outcome of six [[Super Bowl]]s. ... Meanwhile, <!--start cut here --[my room at the Seal Rock Inn is [now] filling up with people who seem on the verge of hysteria at the sight of me still sitting here wasting time on a rambling introduction], <!-- end cut -->[...] with the final chapter still unwritten and the presses scheduled to start rolling in twenty-four hours . . . . <!--cut [but] --> unless somebody shows up pretty soon with extremely powerful speed, there might not ''be'' a final chapter. About four fingers of king-hell Crank would do the trick, but I am not optimistic." |
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</blockquote> |
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===In science=== |
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Famous mathematician [[Paul Erdős]] took amphetamine, and once won a bet from his friend [[Ron Graham]], who bet him $500 that he could not stop taking the drug for a month.<ref name="hill">Hill, J. [http://www.untruth.org/~josh/papers/Paul%20Erd%F6s%20bio-rev2.pdf Paul Erdos, Mathematical Genius, Human (In That Order)]</ref> |
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Erdős won the bet, but complained during his abstinence that mathematics had been set back by a month: "Before, when I looked at a piece of blank paper my mind was filled with ideas. Now all I see is a blank piece of paper." After he won the bet, he promptly resumed his amphetamine habit. |
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===In music=== |
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Many songs have been written about amphetamine, for example in the track entitled "[[St. Ides Heaven]]" from singer/songwriter, [[Elliott Smith]]'s self-titled album. ''[[Semi Charmed Life]]'' by Third Eye Blind also references amphetamine. It has also influenced the aesthetics of many rock'n'roll bands (especially in the [[garage rock]], mod R&B, [[death rock]], punk/hardcore, [[gothic rock]] and extreme heavy metal genres). [[Husker Du]], [[Jesus And Mary Chain]]'s and [[The Who]] were keen amphetamine users early in their existence. [[Land Speed Record (album)|Land Speed Record]] is an allusion to [[Husker Du]]'s amphetamine use. |
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The Who's 1965 iconic Mod/youth anthem "[[My_Generation_(The_Who_song)|My Generation]]" famously re-creates, in [[Roger Daltrey]]'s vocals, the effect of amphetamine on the ability to speak. The pills accelerate the brain's processes to the degree that ideas flow faster than the ability to communicate them by speech, resulting in the characteristic stuttering of words. At various times, in the period 1965-66, either to avoid controversy or to keep the true drug-related reason a secret among "those in the know", Pete Townshend stated the stuttering was a protest at the government's poor record of national education opportunities. |
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Many rock'n'roll bands have named themselves after amphetamine and drug slang surrounding it. For example [[Mod revival]]ists, [[The Purple Hearts]] named themselves after the amphetamine tablets popular with mods during the 1960s, as did the Australian band of the same name during the mid 1960's. The Amphetameanies, a ska-punk band, are also named after amphetamine, but also imitate its effects. [[Dexy's Midnight Runners]], of number one hit "[[Come On Eileen]]" are named after [[Dexedrine]]. [[Motorhead]] named themselves after the slang for an amphetamine addict. Interestingly, [[Lemmy]] said amphetamine was the only drug that he found any benefit in using, saying: |
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<blockquote> |
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" first got into speed because it was a utilitarian drug and kept you awake when you needed to be awake, when otherwise you'd just be flat out on your back. If you drive to Glasgow for nine hours in the back of a sweaty truck you don't really feel like going onstage feeling all bright and breezy... It's the only drug I've found that I can get on with, and I've tried them all — except smack and morphine: I've never fixed anything." |
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</blockquote> |
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===In film=== |
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<!-- Is this worth mentioning? -->In ''[[MASH (film)]]'', an announcement is made over the intercom stating that "Corporal Judson has informed the colonel's office that three cases of amphetamine sulfate are unaccounted for again. This is the third occurrence of this type in the last month. It must stop by order of Colonel Blake's office, 4077th M*A*S*H unit."<ref>http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0066026/quotes</ref> |
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Producer [[David O. Selznick]] was an amphetamine user, and would often dictate long and rambling memos under the influence of amphetamine to his directors.<ref>''Memo From David O. Selznick'', http://www.amazon.com/Memo-David-Selznick-Memorandums-Autobiographical/dp/0375755314</ref> The documentary ''Shadowing The Third Man'' relates that Selznick introduced [[Third Man]] director [[Carol Reed]] to the use of amphetamine, which allowed Reed to bring the picture in below budget and on schedule by filming nearly 22 hours at a time.<ref>''Shadowing the Third Man'', http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0429086/</ref> |
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Garrett Scott's documentary ''Cul-de-Sac: A Suburban War Story'' has a brief history of the manufacture and spread of amphetamine, and of its effects.<ref>''Cul-de-Sac'', http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0317273/</ref><!-- This item may be worth keeping if it can be expanded --> |
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<!-- I don't think this is worth keeping: the article already notes hallucinations and weight loss as effects of amphetamine -->In the movie ''[[Requiem for a Dream]]'' [[Ellen Burstyn]] portrays Sara Goldfarb, an elderly widow who became addicted with weight-loss amphetamine pills, and after suffering from amphetamine psychosis, was hospitalized against her will, undergoes painful electro-convulsive therapy, and later on was confined at a mental asylum.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0081414/news ''Resurrection (1980) - IMDb'']</ref> |
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<!-- is this necessary? -->The movie ''[[Ciao! Manhattan]]'' was riddled with amphetamine usage and is based on the life of [[Edie Sedgwick]] who was a socialite, Andy Warhol's superstar, model, actress, and 'It' girl of 1965. She died before the movie's release on November 16, 1971. |
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<!-- is this necessary? -->In the movie ''[[Empire Records]]'' [[Liv Tyler]]'s character, Corey, ingests amphetamine in several scenes, using the drug to both be alert so she'll do well in school to please her father and to calm herself in stressful situations. |
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The title of the movie ''Amphetamine'' by director Scud (Hongkong 2010)<ref>http://www.amphetaminemovie.com</ref> plays on the double meaning of the word in Chinese - besides the name for the drug it also means 'isn't this his fate?' and tells a story |
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of love, drugs and fate. The straight fitness trainer Kafka meets the successful gay executive Daniel. The two men fatefully fall in love and believe that their love can bridge anything, even their difference in sexuality and Kafka's severe drug habits. |
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==Legal issues== |
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*In the United Kingdom, amphetamines are regarded as [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class B]] drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorized possession is five years in prison and an unlimited fine. The maximum penalty for illegal supply is fourteen years in prison and an unlimited fine. Methamphetamine has recently been reclassified to [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class A]], penalties for possession of which are more severe (7 years in prison and an unlimited fine).<ref>{{cite web|title=Class A, B and C drugs|url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/drugs/drugs-law/Class-a-b-c/|accessdate=2007-07-23}}</ref> |
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*In the Netherlands, amphetamine and methamphetamine are List I drugs of the [[Opium Law]], but the dextro isomer of amphetamine is indicated for ADD/ADHD and narcolepsy and available for prescription as 5 and {{nowrap|10 mg}} generic tablets, and 5 and {{nowrap|10 mg}} gel capsules. |
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*In the United States, amphetamine and methamphetamine are [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule II drugs|Schedule II]] drugs, classified as CNS (central nervous system) stimulants.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=Trends in Methamphetamine/Amphetamine Admissions to Treatment: 1993–2003 |
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| publisher = Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration |
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| url=http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k6/methTX/methTX.htm |
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| accessdate=February 28, 2007 |
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}}</ref> A Schedule II drug is classified as one that has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence. |
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Internationally, amphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| title=List of psychotropic substances under international control |
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| publisher = International Narcotics Control Board |
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| url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf |
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| format = PDF |
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| accessdate=November 19, 2005 |
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}}</ref> |
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== Prodrugs == |
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A number of substances have been shown to produce amphetamine and/or methamphetamine as [[metabolite]]s, including [[amphetaminil]], [[benzphetamine]], [[clobenzorex]], [[dimethylamphetamine]], [[ethylamphetamine]], [[famprofazone]], [[fencamine]], [[fenethylline]], [[fenproporex]], [[furfenorex]], [[lisdexamfetamine]], [[mefenorex]], [[mesocarb]], [[prenylamine]], [[propylamphetamine]], and [[selegiline]], among others.<ref name="pmid10711406">{{cite journal | author = Musshoff F | title = Illegal or legitimate use? Precursor compounds to amphetamine and methamphetamine | journal = Drug Metabolism Reviews | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–44 | year = 2000 | month = February | pmid = 10711406 | doi = 10.1081/DMR-100100562 | url = http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1081/DMR-100100562 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12024689">{{cite journal | author = Cody JT | title = Precursor medications as a source of methamphetamine and/or amphetamine positive drug testing results | journal = Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine / American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 435–50 | year = 2002 | month = May | pmid = 12024689 | doi = | url = http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1076-2752&volume=44&issue=5&spage=435}}</ref> These compounds may produce [[false positive]]s for amphetamine on [[drug test]]s.<ref name="pmid10711406"/><ref name="pmid12024689"/> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Psychostimulant]] |
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* [[Methamphetamine]] |
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* [[Dextroamphetamine]] |
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* [[Adderall]] |
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* [[Lisdexamfetamine]] |
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* [[Amphetamine psychosis]] |
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* [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] |
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* [[Methylphenidate]] |
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* [[Benzylpiperazine]] |
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* [[Clandestine chemistry]] |
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* [[Ethylamphetamine]] |
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* [[Phenethylamine]] |
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* [[Propylamphetamine]] |
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* [[Releasing agent]] |
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==References and notes== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==External links== |
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*{{PubChemLink|5826}} ([[D-form]]—dextroamphetamine) |
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*{{PubChemLink|3007}} (L-form and D, L-forms) |
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*{{PubChemLink|32893}} ([[L-form]]—Levamphetamine or L-amphetamine) |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pccompound&DbFrom=pccompound&Cmd=Link&LinkName=pccompound_pccompound&LinkReadableName=Similar%20Compounds&IdsFromResult=3007&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pccompound.Pccompound_ResultsPanel.Pccompound_RVDocSum List of 504 Compounds Similar to Amphetamine (PubChem)] |
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*[http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/?nnodeid=25479 EMCDDA drugs profile: Amphetamine (2007)] |
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*[http://www.drugs.com/Amphetamine Drugs.com - Amphetamine] |
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*[http://www.apaic.org Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre] |
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* [http://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/dpdirect.jsp?name=Amphetamine U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal - Amphetamine] |
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{{Drug_use}} |
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{{Stimulants}} |
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{{Antihyperkinetics}} |
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{{Anorectics}} |
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{{Adrenergics}} |
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{{Dopaminergics}} |
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{{Phenethylamines}} |
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[[Category:Stimulants]] |
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[[Category:Amphetamines]] |
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[[Category:Sympathomimetic amines]] |
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[[Category:Anorectics]] |
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[[Category:German inventions]] |
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[[Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors]] |
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[[Category:Dopamine agonists]] |
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[[Category:Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors]] |
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[[Category:Serotonin receptor agonists]] |
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[[Category:Drugs acting on the nervous system]] |
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[[Category:Drugs acting on the cardiovascular system]] |
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[[Category:Euphoriants]] |
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[[ar:أمفيتامين]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:Amphetamine]] |
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[[bg:Амфетамин]] |
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[[ca:Amfetamina]] |
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[[cs:Amfetamin]] |
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[[da:Amfetamin]] |
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[[de:Amphetamin]] |
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[[et:Amfetamiin]] |
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[[el:Αμφεταμίνη]] |
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[[es:Anfetamina]] |
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[[eu:Anfetamina]] |
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[[fr:Amphétamine]] |
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[[gl:Anfetamina]] |
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[[hr:Amfetamin]] |
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[[id:Amfetamin]] |
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[[it:Anfetamina]] |
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[[he:אמפטמין]] |
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[[lv:Amfetamīns]] |
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[[lt:Amfetaminas]] |
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[[hu:Amfetamin]] |
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[[ms:Amfetamina]] |
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[[nl:Amfetamine]] |
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[[ja:アンフェタミン]] |
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[[no:Amfetamin]] |
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[[nn:Amfetamin]] |
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[[pl:Amfetamina]] |
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[[pt:Anfetamina]] |
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[[ro:Amfetamină]] |
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[[ru:Амфетамин]] |
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[[sl:Amfetamin]] |
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[[sr:Амфетамин]] |
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[[fi:Amfetamiini]] |
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[[sv:Amfetamin]] |
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[[th:แอมเฟตามีน]] |
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[[tr:Amfetamin]] |
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[[uk:Амфетамін]] |
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[[vi:Amphetamin]] |
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[[zh:苯丙胺]] |
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Revision as of 02:39, 28 May 2010
do not take this drug epically diet pills that have this drug in because it will indeed show up on a drug test and do not use wikipedia wither because other people just like me click on edit and write whatever we wont to write so try another websiite this information is not accurate