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Aluminium–scandium alloys

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Aluminium–scandium alloys (AlSc) are aluminum alloys that consist largely of aluminium (Al) and traces of scandium (Sc) as the main alloying elements. In principle, aluminium alloys strengthened with additions of scandium are very similar to traditional nickel-base superalloys in that both are strengthened by coherent, coarsening resistant precipitates with an ordered L12 structure. But Al–Sc alloys contain a much lower volume fraction of precipitates, and the inter-precipitate distance is much smaller than in their nickel-base counterparts. In both cases however, the coarsening resistant precipitates allow the alloys to retain their strength at high temperatures.[1]

Composition

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The addition of scandium to aluminium limits grain growth in the heat-affected zone of welded aluminium components. This has two beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than in other aluminium alloys,[2] and the volume of precipitate-free zones at the grain boundaries of age-hardening aluminium alloys is reduced.[2] Scandium is also a potent grain refiner in cast aluminium alloys, and atom for atom, the most potent strengthener in aluminium, both as a result of grain refinement and precipitation strengthening.

The Al3Sc precipitate is a coherent precipitate that strengthens the aluminum matrix by applying elastic strain fields that inhibit dislocation movement (i.e., plastic deformation). An added benefit of scandium additions to aluminum is that the nanoscale Al3Sc precipitates that give the alloy its strength are coarsening resistant at relatively high temperatures (~350 °C). This is in contrast to typical commercial 2xxx and 6xxx alloys, which quickly lose their strength at temperatures above 250 °C due to the rapid coarsening of their strengthening precipitates.[3] The Al3Sc precipitates also increase the yield strength of aluminum alloys by 50–70 MPa (7.3–10.2 ksi).[4]

Al3Sc has an equilibrium L12 superlattice structure.[5] A fine dispersion of nano-scale precipitate can be achieved via heat treatment that can also strengthen the alloys through order hardening.[6]

Recent developments include the additions of transition metals such as Zr and rare earth metals like Er to produce shells surrounding the spherical Al3Sc precipitate that has been shown to increase the coarsening resistance of Al-Sc alloys to ~400 °C.[7]  The additions form strengthening precipitates with composition  Al3(Sc,Zr,Er).[8] These shells are dictated by the diffusivity of the alloying element and lower the cost of the alloy due to less Sc being substituted in part by Zr while maintaining stability and less Sc being needed to form the precipitate.[9] These efforts led by Profs. Seidman and Dunand at Northwestern University, as well as others in the field,[1][4][7][10][11][12] resulted in pioneering aluminum superalloys strengthened with core-shell L12-structured nanoprecipitates, an f.c.c./L12 dual-phase alloy. These alloys are somewhat competitive with titanium alloys for a wide array of applications. The alloy Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 is as strong as titanium, as light as aluminum, and as hard as some ceramics.[13] However, titanium alloys, which are similar in lightness and strength, are cheaper and much more widely used.[14]

Since 2013, Apworks GmbH, a spin-off of Airbus, has marketed a high-strength Scandium containing aluminium alloy processed using metal 3D-Printing (Laser Powder Bed Fusion) under the trademark Scalmalloy which claims very high strength & ductility. [15]

Applications

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Parts of the MiG-29 are made from Al-Sc alloy.[2]
  • The main application of metallic scandium by weight is in aluminium–scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% (by weight) of scandium. They were used in the Russian military, specifically the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 and MiG-29.[2]
  • The increased operating temperature of Al-Sc alloys has significant implications for energy efficient applications, particularly in the automotive industry. These alloys can provide a replacement for denser materials such as steel and titanium that are used in 250–350 °C environments, such as in or near engines. Replacement of these materials with lighter aluminium alloys leads to weight reductions which in turn leads to increased fuel efficiencies.[8]
  • Some items of sports equipment, which rely on lightweight high-performance materials, have been made with scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats,[16] tent poles and bicycle frames and components.[17] Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium.
  • The American firearm manufacturing company Smith & Wesson produces semi-automatic pistols and revolvers with frames of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium or carbon steel.[18][19]

References

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  1. ^ a b Vo, Nhon (2016). "Role of silicon in the precipitation kinetics of dilute Al-Sc-Er-Zr alloys". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 677 (20): 485. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2016.09.065.
  2. ^ a b c d Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM. 55 (2): 35. Bibcode:2003JOM....55b..35A. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6. S2CID 8956425.
  3. ^ Marquis, Emmanuelle (2002). "Precipitation strengthening at ambient and elevated temperatures of heat-treatable Al(Sc) alloys". Acta Materialia. 50 (16): 4021. Bibcode:2002AcMat..50.4021S. doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00201-X.
  4. ^ a b Knipling, Keith E.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (11 January 2022). "Criteria for developing castable, creep-resistant aluminum-based alloys – A review". International Journal of Materials Research. 97 (3): 246–265. doi:10.1515/ijmr-2006-0042. ISSN 2195-8556.
  5. ^ Knipling, Keith E.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (1 March 2006). "Criteria for developing castable, creep-resistant aluminum-based alloys – A review". Zeitschrift für Metallkunde. 97 (3): 246–265. doi:10.3139/146.101249. ISSN 0044-3093. S2CID 4681149.
  6. ^ Knipling, Keith E.; Karnesky, Richard A.; Lee, Constance P.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (1 September 2010). "Precipitation evolution in Al–0.1Sc, Al–0.1Zr and Al–0.1Sc–0.1Zr (at.%) alloys during isochronal aging". Acta Materialia. 58 (15): 5184–5195. Bibcode:2010AcMat..58.5184K. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.05.054. ISSN 1359-6454.
  7. ^ a b Booth-Morrison, Christopher; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (1 October 2011). "Coarsening resistance at 400°C of precipitation-strengthened Al–Zr–Sc–Er alloys". Acta Materialia. 59 (18): 7029–7042. Bibcode:2011AcMat..59.7029B. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2011.07.057. ISSN 1359-6454.
  8. ^ a b "Heat Resistant Superalloys". NanoAl. 2016. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  9. ^ De Luca, Anthony; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (15 October 2016). "Mechanical properties and optimization of the aging of a dilute Al-Sc-Er-Zr-Si alloy with a high Zr/Sc ratio". Acta Materialia. 119: 35–42. Bibcode:2016AcMat.119...35D. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.08.018. ISSN 1359-6454.
  10. ^ Farkoosh, Amir R.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (4 November 2020). "Effects of W and Si microadditions on microstructure and the strength of dilute precipitation-strengthened Al–Zr–Er alloys". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 798: 140159. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2020.140159. ISSN 0921-5093.
  11. ^ Jung, Jae-Gil; Farkoosh, Amir R.; Seidman, David N. (15 September 2023). "Microstructural and mechanical properties of precipitation-strengthened Al-Mg-Zr-Sc-Er-Y-Si alloys". Acta Materialia. 257: 119167. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2023.119167. ISSN 1359-6454.
  12. ^ Dorin, Thomas; Langan, Timothy (2024), Wagstaff, Samuel (ed.), "The Role of New Aluminium-Scandium Alloys for Emission Reduction in Various Sectors", Light Metals 2024, Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, pp. 1105–1110, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50308-5_139, ISBN 978-3-031-50307-8, retrieved 24 November 2024
  13. ^ Youssef, Khaled M.; Zaddach, Alexander J.; Niu, Changning; Irving, Douglas L.; Koch, Carl C. (2015). "A Novel Low-Density, High-Hardness, High-entropy Alloy with Close-packed Single-phase Nanocrystalline Structures". Materials Research Letters. 3 (2): 95–99. doi:10.1080/21663831.2014.985855.
  14. ^ Schwarz, James A.; Contescu, Cristian I.; Putyera, Karol (2004). Dekker encyclopédia of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Vol. 3. CRC Press. p. 2274. ISBN 978-0-8247-5049-7.
  15. ^ "APWORKS' Scalmalloy metal additive manufacturing material approved for use in Formula 1". TCT. 2 July 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  16. ^ Bjerklie, Steve (2006). "A batty business: Anodized metal bats have revolutionized baseball. But are finishers losing the sweet spot?". Metal Finishing. 104 (4): 61. doi:10.1016/S0026-0576(06)80099-1.
  17. ^ "Easton Technology Report: Materials / Scandium" (PDF). EastonBike.com. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
  18. ^ James, Frank (15 December 2004). Effective handgun defense. Krause Publications. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-0-87349-899-9. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
  19. ^ Sweeney, Patrick (13 December 2004). The Gun Digest Book of Smith & Wesson. Gun Digest Books. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-87349-792-3. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2011.

Further reading

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  • Dorin, Thomas; Ramajayam, Mahendra; Vahid, Alireza; Langan, Timothy (2018), "Aluminium Scandium Alloys", Fundamentals of Aluminium Metallurgy, Elsevier, pp. 439–494
  • Røyset, J.; Ryum, N. (2005-02-01). "Scandium in aluminium alloys". International Materials Reviews. 50 (1): 19–44. doi:10.1179/174328005X14311. ISSN 0950-6608
  • Shevchenko, M. O.; Kudin, V. G.; Berezutskii, V. V.; Ivanov, M. I.; Sudavtsova, V. S. (2014-07-01). "Thermodynamic Properties of Al–Sc Alloys". Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics. 53 (3): 243–249. doi:10.1007/s11106-014-9610-6. ISSN 1573-9066
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