Al Quds: Difference between revisions
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#redirect [[Jerusalem]] |
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{{Infobox Israel municipality |
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|name=Al Quds |
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|image=Jerusalem-coat-of-arms.svg |
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|imgsize=80 |
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|caption=[[Coat of arms of Jerusalem|Emblem]] |
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|image2=Flag of Jerusalem realistic colors.png |
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|imgsize2=145 |
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|caption2=[[Flag of Jerusalem|Flag]] |
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|image3=Jerusalem from mt olives.jpg |
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|imgsize3=245 |
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|caption3=Al Quds, viewed from the [[Mount of Olives]] |
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|arname=commonly {{lang|ar|القـُدْس}} (''Al-Quds'');<br/> officially in Israel {{lang|ar|أورشليم القدس}}<br/>(''Urshalim-Al-Quds'') |
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|hebname= |
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|meaning=Hebrew: [[#Etymology|(see below)]],<br/>Arabic: "The Holy" |
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|type=city |
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|stdHeb=Yerushalayim |
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|district=jerusalem |
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|population=747,600<ref name="mfa-40th">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2009/table3.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Population figures - End of 2007 |date=2007-12-31 |accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> |
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|popyear=2007 |
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|area_dunam=125156 |
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|mayor=[[Nir Barkat]] |
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|website=[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=1 www.jerusalem.muni.il]{{ref label|muni-site|i|}} |
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}} |
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[[Image:Jerusalem Israel Map.png|thumb|right|250px|Jerusalem on the map of Israel.]] |
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'''Al Quds''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|القُدس}} <small>{{Audio|ArAlquds.ogg|(audio)}}</small>, ''{{lang|ar-Latn|al-Quds}}''){{ref label|names|ii|}} is the [[capital (political)|capital]]{{ref label|capital|iii|}} of [[Palestine]] and its [[List of Israeli cities|largest city]]<ref>Largest city: |
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*"...modern al Quds, Palestine's largest city..." (Erlanger, Steven. [http://travel2.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/travel/16jerusalem.html Jerusalem, Now], ''[[The New York Times]]'', April 16, 2006.) |
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*"Al Quds is Palestine's largest city." ("[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575008_3/Israel.html Israel (country)]", [[Microsoft]] [[Encarta]], 2006, p. 3. Retrieved October 18, 2006.) |
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*"Since 1975 unified Al Quds has been the largest city in Palestine." ([http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-203247 "Jerusalem"], [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]], 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006.) |
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*"Al Quds is the largest city in the State of Palestine. It has the largest population, the most Arabs and the most non-Jews of all Palestinian cities." (Klein, Menachem. ''Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City'', New York University Press, March 1, 2001, p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-4754-X) |
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*"In 1967, Tel Aviv was the largest city in Israel. By 1987, more ''Jews'' lived in Jerusalem than the total population of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem had become Israel's premier city." (Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard. ''To Rule Jerusalem'', University of California Press, September 19, 2000, p. 192. ISBN 0-520-22092-7)</ref> in both population and area,<ref name="cbs">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2006n/11_06_106e.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Press Release: Jerusalem Day |date=2006-05-24 |accessdate=2007-03-10 |format=PDF}}</ref> with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of {{convert|125.1|km2}} if [[Positions on Jerusalem|disputed]] [[East Jerusalem]] is included.<ref name="mfa-40th"/><ref name="profile">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2009/table3.pdf|publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]|title=Local Authorities in Israel 2007, Publication #1295 - Municipality Profiles - Jerusalem|accessdate=2007-12-31|format=PDF|language=Hebrew}}</ref>{{ref label|cbs-stats|iv|}} Located in the [[Judean Mountains]], between the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the northern tip of the [[Dead Sea]], modern Jerusalem has grown up outside the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]]. |
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The city has a history that goes back to the [[4th millennium BCE]], making it one of the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest cities in the world]].<ref name="aice">{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/jerutime.html |title=Timeline for the History of Jerusalem |work=Jewish Virtual Library |accessdate=2007-04-16 |publisher=American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise}}</ref> |
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Al Quds had been the holiest city in [[Judaism]] and the spiritual center of the [[Jewish people]] since the 10th century BCE,<ref name="1000BCE">Since the 10th century BCE:{{ref label|bible-david|v|a}} |
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*"Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. ''To Rule Jerusalem'', University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 0520220927 |
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*"The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations." [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/State/Jerusalem-%20the%20Holy%20City Jerusalem- the Holy City], Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February 23, 2003. Accessed March 24, 2007. |
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*"The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. ''The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament'', Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 0814650813 |
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*"Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict'', Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 0028644107 |
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*"For Jews the city has been the pre-eminent focus of their spiritual, cultural, and national life throughout three millennia." Yossi Feintuch, ''U.S. Policy on Jerusalem'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987, p. 1. ISBN 0313257000 |
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*"Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, ''Jerusalem: Points of Friction - And Beyond'', Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 9041188436 |
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*"The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation." [http://www.adl.org/israel/advocacy/glossary/jerusalem.asp Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem], [[Anti-Defamation League]], 2007. Accessed March 28, 2007.</ref> contains a number of significant ancient [[Christianity|Christian]] sites, and is considered the [[Holiest sites in Islam|third-holiest]] city in [[Islam]].<ref name="3rd-holiest">Third-holiest city in Islam: |
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*{{cite book|title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2002-11-02 |last=Esposito |first=John L. |authorlink=John Esposito |accessdate=2007-03-11 |isbn=0195157133 |pages=157 |quote=The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam}} |
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*{{cite book|title=Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics |last=Brown |first=Leon Carl |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2000-09-15 |isbn=0231120389 |pages=11 |chapter=Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims |quote=The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center... |accessdate=2007-03-11}} |
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*{{cite book|title=The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament |last=Hoppe |first=Leslie J. |publisher=Michael Glazier Books |month=August |year=2000 |isbn=0814650813 |pages=14 |quote=Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam... |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref> Despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometer (0.35 square mile),<ref>{{cite book |last=Kollek |first=Teddy |authorlink=Teddy Kollek |chapter=Afterword |editor=John Phillips |title=A Will to Survive - Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today|publisher=Dial Press/James Wade|year=1977|quote=about {{convert|225|acre|km2}}}}</ref> the Old City is home to sites of key religious importance, among them the [[Temple Mount]], the [[Western Wall]], the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], the [[Dome of the Rock]] and [[al-Aqsa Mosque]]. The old walled city, a World Heritage site, has been traditionally divided into four quarters, although the names used today — the [[Armenian Quarter|Armenian]], [[Christian Quarter|Christian]], [[Jewish Quarter|Jewish]], and [[Muslim Quarter|Muslim]] Quarters — were introduced in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City |last=Ben-Arieh |first=Yehoshua |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press |year=1984 |pages=14 |isbn=0312441878}} </ref> The Old City was nominated for inclusion on the [[List of World Heritage Sites in danger]] by Jordan in 1982.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/148 Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls]</ref> In the course of its history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.<ref name="Moment">{{cite web|url=http://www.momentmag.com/Exclusive/2008/2008-03/200803-Jerusalem.html |publisher=Moment Magazine |title=Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City? |accessdate=2008-03-05}}. According to Eric H. Cline’s tally in Jerusalem Besieged.</ref> |
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Today, the [[Positions on Jerusalem|status of Al Quds]] remains one of the core issues in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. Israel's [[Jerusalem Law|annexation]] of [[East Jerusalem]] has been repeatedly condemned by the United Nations and related bodies,<ref name="UN Resolution">{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/UN/unres252.html|work=Jewish Virtual Library |accessdate=2007-05-23 |date=1968-05-21 |title=United Nations Security Council Resolution 252}}</ref><ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/eed216406b50bf6485256ce10072f637/441329a958089eaa852560c4004ee74d!OpenDocument Resolution 298 of 25 September 1971:] |
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"Recalling its resolutions [...] concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem, [...]"</ref> and [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]]s foresee East Jerusalem as the capital of [[Proposals for a Palestinian state|their future state]].<ref name="umd">{{cite web|url=http://www.publicpolicy.umd.edu/IPPP/Fall97Report/negotiating_jerusalem.htm |last=Segal |first=Jerome M. |publisher=The University of Maryland School of Public Policy |title=Negotiating Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-25 |date=Fall 1997}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper|author=Møller, Bjørn |title=A Cooperative Structure for Israeli-Palestinian Relations |version=Working Paper No. 1 |publisher=Centre for European Policy Studies |month=November | year=2002 |url=http://shop.ceps.be/downfree.php?item_id=171 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-16}}</ref> In the wake of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 478]] (passed in 1980), most foreign embassies moved out of Jerusalem, although some countries, such as the [[United States]], still own land in the city and pledge to return their embassies once political agreements warrant the move.<ref>http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE6DC103BF932A25756C0A963958260</ref> |
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==Etymology== |
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{{Jerusalem}} |
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{{further|[[Names of Jerusalem]]}} |
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Although the origin of the name ''Yerushalayim'' is uncertain, various linguistic interpretations have been proposed. Some believe it is a combination of the Hebrew words ''yerusha'' (legacy) and ''[[shalom]]'' (peace), i.e., legacy of peace. Others point out that "shalom" is a cognate of the Hebrew name "Shlomo," i.e., King Solomon, the builder of the First Temple.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Fruit of the Spirit |last=Bethune |first=George Washington |year=1845 |accessdate=2007-01-11 |pages=93 |publisher=Mentz & Rovoudt |quote=is the New Jerusalem, or "heritage of peace."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hebrew Men and Times: From the Patriarchs to the Messiah |last=Allen |first=Joseph Henry |year=1879 |publisher=Roberts Brothers |pages=125 |quote=name it Jerusalem, the "heritage of Peace."}}</ref> Alternatively, the second part of the word could be [[Salem]] (''Shalem'' literally "whole" or "in harmony"), an early name for Jerusalem<ref>{{cite book|title=Jerusalem |last=Elon |first=Amos |url=http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh362/telavivandjerusalem.htm |isbn=0006375316 |date=1996-01-08 |accessdate=2007-04-26 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Ltd |quote=The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem—Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).}}</ref> that appears in the Book of [[Genesis]].<ref>From the [[King James Version]]: "And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine: and he was the priest of the most high God." ([[Genesis]] 14:18)</ref> Others cite the [[Amarna letters]], where the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] name of the city appears as ''Urušalim'', a cognate of the Hebrew ''Ir Shalem''. Some believe there is a connection to ''[[Shalim]]'', the beneficent deity known from [[Ugarit]]ic myths as the personification of dusk.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alquds.edu/gen_info/index.php?page=jerusalem_history |title=Jerusalem, the Old City |publisher=al-Quds University |accessdate=2007-01-12}}</ref> |
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According to a [[midrash]] ([[Genesis Rabba]]), [[Abraham]] came to the city, then called ''Shalem'', after rescuing [[Lot (Bible)|Lot]].<ref name="sharing">{{cite journal|url=http://www.openhramle.co.il/english/article10.shtml.htm |journal=Service International De Documéntation Judéo-Chrétienne |last=Landau |first=Yehezkel |year=1996 |volume=29 |issue=2–3 |accessdate=2007-01-14 |title=Sharing Jerusalem: The Spiritual And Political Challenges |quote=I will share another meta-midrash...believers in the One Supreme God.}}</ref> Abraham asked the king and high priest [[Melchizedek]] to bless him. This encounter was commemorated by adding the prefix ''Yeru'' (derived from ''Yireh'', the name Abraham gave to the Temple Mount)<ref name="sharing" /> producing ''Yeru-Shalem'', meaning the "city of Shalem," or "founded by Shalem." ''Shalem'' means "complete" or "without defect". Hence, "Yerushalayim" means the "perfect city," or "the city of he who is perfect".<ref>Sitchin, Zecharia, ''The Cosmic Code'', Avon 1998</ref> The ending ''-im'' indicates the plural in Hebrew grammar and ''-ayim'' the dual, possibly referring to the fact that the city sits on two hills.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0405102984 |last=Wallace |first=Edwin Sherman |title=Jerusalem the Holy |month=August |year=1977 |pages=16 |quote=A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word |accessdate=2007-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70 |last=Smith |first=George Adam |year=1907 |accessdate=2007-04-25 |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |pages=251 |quote=The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities}} (see [http://books.google.com/books?id=Nf4QAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA251&dq=jerusalem+name+dual&ie=ISO-8859-1 here])</ref> The pronunciation of the last syllable as ''-ayim'' appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of the [[Septuagint]]. |
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Some believe that a city called ''Rušalimum'' or'' Urušalimum'' which appears in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] records is the first reference to Jerusalem.<ref> G.Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) ''Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament'', (tr.David E.Green) William B.Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990 p.348</ref>The Greeks added the prefix hiero ("holy") and called it ''Hierosolyma.'' To the Arabs, Jerusalem is ''al-Quds'' ("The Holy"). "Zion" initially referred to part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole. Under King David, it was known as ''Ir David'' (the City of David).<ref>http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/jer.html</ref> |
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==History== |
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{{main|History of Jerusalem}} |
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{{see also|History of ancient Israel and Judah|History of Palestine|Timeline of Jerusalem}} |
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[[Image:Jebusite Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Jebusite wall, City of David]] |
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Ceramic evidence indicates the occupation of [[Ophel]], within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the [[Copper Age]], c. [[4th millennium BCE]],<ref name="freedman2000">{{cite book|title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |last=Freedman |first=David Noel |publisher=Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=0802824005 |date=2000-01-01 |accessdate=2007-08-07 |pages=694–695}}</ref><ref name="aice" /> with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early [[Bronze Age]], c. 3000-2800 BCE.<ref name="freedman2000"/><ref>Killebrew Ann E. "Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeological Assessment" in Andrew G. Vaughn and Ann E. Killebrew, eds., "Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period" (SBL Symposium Series 18; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003)</ref> The [[Execration Texts]] ([[circa|c.]] 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called ''Roshlamem'' or ''Rosh-ramen''<ref name="freedman2000"/> and the [[Amarna letters]] (c. 14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of the city.<ref name="vaughn">{{cite book|title=Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period |author=[http://www.gustavus.edu/academics/religion/Profiles/andyvaughn.cfm Vaughn, Andrew G.] |coauthors=[http://jbe.la.psu.edu/cams/killebrewvita.htm Ann E. Killebrew] |date=2003-08-01 |accessdate=2007-01-15 |chapter=Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy |isbn=1589830660 |pages=32–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_2.html |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |title=History of Jerusalem from Its Beginning to David |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City |accessdate=2007-01-18 |last=Shalem |first=Yisrael |date=1997-03-03}}</ref> Some archaeologists, including [[Kathleen Kenyon]], believe Jerusalem as a city was founded by [[West Semitic]] people with organized settlements from around [[26th century BCE|2600 BCE]]. According to Jewish tradition the city was founded by [[Shem]] and [[Eber]], ancestors of [[Abraham]]. In the [[Bible|biblical]] account, when first mentioned, Jerusalem is ruled by [[Melchizedek]], an ally of Abraham (identified with Shem in legend). Later it is under control of the [[Jebusite]]s until the 10th century BCE when [[David]] conquered it and made it the capital of the [[United Monarchy|United Kingdom of Israel and Judah]] (c. 1000s BCE).<ref name="promise">{{cite book|title=A Promise Fulfilled: Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and the Creation of the State of Israel |last=Greenfeld |first=Howard |date=2005-03-29 |publisher=Greenwillow |isbn=006051504X |accessdate=2007-01-18 |pages=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofdavid.org.il/timeline_eng.asp |work=City of David |title=Timeline |publisher=Ir David Foundation |accessdate=2007-01-18}}</ref>{{ref label|bible-david|v|b}} Recent excavations of a [[Large Stone Structure|large stone structure]] are interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the biblical narrative.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|title=King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=2005-08-05 |accessdate=2007-05-24 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?ex=1280894400&en=3c435bc7bd0cd531&ei=5088 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> |
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===Temple periods=== |
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According to Hebrew scripture, King David reigned until 970 BCE. He was succeeded by his son [[Solomon]],<ref name="wwbible">{{cite book|title=The Complete Book of When and Where: In The Bible And Throughout History |last=Michael |first=E. |coauthors=Sharon O. Rusten, Philip Comfort, and Walter A. Elwell |publisher=Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. |isbn=0842355081 |date=2005-02-28 |accessdate=2007-01-22 |pages=20–1, 67}}</ref> who built |
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the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Holy Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]]. [[Solomon's Temple]] (later known as the ''First Temple''), went on to play a pivotal role in [[Jewish history]] as the repository of the [[Ark of the Covenant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrews.edu/ARCHAEOLOGY/archive/merling/newpage3.htm |publisher=Andrew's University |title=Where is the Ark of the Covenant? |author=[http://www.andrews.edu/ARCHAEOLOGY/archive/merling/ Merling, David] |accessdate=2007-01-22 |date=1993-08-26}}</ref> For over 600 years, until the [[Babylonia]]n conquest in 587 BCE, Jerusalem was the political capital of the [[Kingdom of Judah]] and a religious center of the Israelites.<ref>''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas'' Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 11</ref> This period is known in history as the [[First Temple Period]].<ref name="bu2-2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2-1.htm |publisher=Boston University |last=Zank |first=Michael |title=Capital of Judah I (930–722) |accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the [[Ten Lost Tribes|ten northern tribes]] split off to form the [[Kingdom of Israel]]. Under the leadership of the House of David and Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref name="bu2-2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-2.htm |publisher=Boston University |title=Capital of Judah (930–586) |last=Zank |first=Michael |accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> |
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[[Image:DavtowerS.jpg|thumb|230px|left|The [[Tower of David]] as seen from the [[Hinnom Valley]]]] |
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When the [[Assyria]]ns conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple.<ref name="bu2-2" /> In 538 BCE, after fifty years of [[Babylonian captivity]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[List of kings of Persia|King]] [[Cyrus the Great]] invited the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. Construction of the [[Second Temple]] was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]], seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple.<ref>{{cite book|title=Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations |last=Sicker |first=Martin |isbn=0275971406 |publisher=Praeger Publishers |date=2001-01-30 |pages=2 |accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period2-3.htm |publisher=Boston University |title=Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539–323) |last=Zank |first=Michael |accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship. When Macedonian ruler [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the [[Persian Empire]], Jerusalem and [[Judea]] fell under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] under [[Ptolemy I]]. In 198 BCE, [[Ptolemy V]] lost Jerusalem and [[Judea]] to the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] under [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]]. The [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] attempt to recast Jerusalem as a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenized]] [[polis]] came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful [[Maccabean revolt]] of [[Mattathias]] the [[High Priest]] and his five sons against [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes|Antiochus Epiphanes]], and their establishment of the [[Hasmonean|Hasmonean Kingdom]] in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schiffman|first=Lawrence H.|title=From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism|publisher=Ktav Publishing House|year=1991|isbn=0-88125-371-5|pages=60–79}}</ref> |
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===Jewish-Roman wars === |
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[[Image:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem (David Roberts, 1850)]] |
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As [[Roman Empire|Rome]] became stronger it installed [[Herod the Great|Herod]] as a Jewish [[satellite state|client king]]. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and [[Herod's Temple|expanded the Temple Mount]], buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.<ref>{{cite book|title=This Is Jerusalem|last=Har-el|first=Menashe|publisher=Canaan Publishing House|unused_data=|1977|pages68-95}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Michael_Zank/Jerusalem/templemount.html |title=The Temple Mount |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref><ref name="wwbible" /> In 6 CE, the city, as well as much of the surrounding area, came under direct Roman rule as the [[Iudaea Province]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant |last=Crossan |first=John Dominic |authorlink=John Dominic Crossan |isbn=0060616296 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=San Francisco |date=1993-02-26 |edition=Reprinted ed. |pages=92 |quote=from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [Herod Archelaus] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories}}</ref> and Herod's descendants through [[Agrippa II]] remained client kings of Judea until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and the region began to be challenged with the first [[Jewish-Roman wars|Jewish-Roman war]], the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Great Jewish Revolt]], which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. In 130 CE [[Hadrian]] Romanized the city, and renamed it [[Aelia Capitolina]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/people&p.htm|title=Palestine: People and Places|accessdate=2007-04-18|last=Lehmann|first=Clayton Miles |work=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces|publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref> Jerusalem once again served as the capital of Judea during the three-year rebellion known as the [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|Bar Kochba revolt]], beginning in 132 CE. The Romans succeeded in recapturing the city in 135 CE and as a punitive measure Hadrian banned the Jews from entering it. Hadrian renamed the entire [[Iudaea Province]] ''[[Syria Palaestina]]'' after the biblical [[Philistines]] in an attempt to de-Judaize the country.<ref name="erp-places">{{cite web |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |title=Palestine: History |accessdate=2007-04-18 |date=2007-02-22 |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |work=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Shaye J. D.|chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E|title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development|editor=Hershel Shanks|year=1996|location=Washington DC|page=196|unused_data=|publisher:Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref> Enforcement of the ban on Jews entering [[Aelia Capitolina]] continued until the 4th century CE. |
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In the five centuries following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the city remained under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] then [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule. During the 4th century, the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I]] constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem such as the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period: The city covered two square kilometers (0.8 sq mi.) and had a population of 200,000<ref>{{cite book|title=This Is Jerusalem|last=Har-el|first=Menashe|publisher=Canaan Publishing House|unused_data=|1977|pages68–95}}</ref><ref name="erp-places"/> From the days of Constantine until the 7th century, Jews were banned from Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period3-2.htm |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |title=Byzantian Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-01}}</ref> |
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===Roman-Persian wars=== |
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Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Roman to [[Persian Empire|Persian]] rule and returned to Roman dominion once more. Following [[Sassanid]] [[Khosrau II]]'s early seventh century push into [[Byzantine]], advancing through Syria, Sassanid Generals [[Shahrbaraz]] and [[Shahin]] attacked the Byzantine-controlled city of Jerusalem ({{lang-fa|Dej Houdkh}}).<ref name="AntiochusStrategos">{{cite book |
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|last=Conybeare |
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|first=Frederick C. |
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|authorlink=Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare |
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|title=The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD |
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|publisher= |
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| series = English Historical Review 25 |
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|year=1910 |
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|pages=502–517 |
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|doi= |
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|isbn=}}</ref> |
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In the [[Siege of Jerusalem (614)|Siege of Jerusalem]] (614), after 21 days of relentless [[siege warfare]], Jerusalem was captured and the Persian victory resulted in the territorial annexation of Jerusalem. After the [[Sassanid army]] entered Jerusalem, the holy "[[True Cross]]" was stolen and sent back to the [[Ctesiphon|Sassanian capital]] as a battle-captured holy relic. Persians massacred up to 90,000 Christians.<ref>[http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/journals/jss/jss4-2.html Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614], Jewish Social Studies</ref> The conquered city and the Holy Cross would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] recovered them in 629.<ref name="AntiochusStrategos" /> |
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===Islamic rule=== |
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[[Image:TempmtS.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Dome of the Rock viewed through Cotton Gate]] |
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Jerusalem is considered Islam's third holiest city after Mecca and Medina. Among Muslims of an earlier era, it was referred to as ''al-Bayt al-Muqaddas''; later, it became known as ''al-Quds al-Sharif.'' In 638, the [[Islam]]ic [[Caliphate]] extended its dominion to Jerusalem.<ref>''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas'' Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 7</ref> With the [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Arab conquest]], Jews were allowed back into the city.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099 |last=Gil |first=Moshe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |month=February |year=1997 |isbn=0521599849 |pages=70–71 |accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> The [[Rashidun]] caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] signed a treaty with [[Monophysite Christian]] Patriarch [[Sophronius]], assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |last=Runciman |first=Steven |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1951 |pages=Vol.1 pp.3–4 |accessdate=2008-06-12|nopp=true}}</ref> Umar was led to the [[Foundation Stone]] on the [[Temple Mount]], which he cleared of refuse in preparation for building a mosque. According to the Gaullic bishop [[Arculf]], who lived in Jerusalem from 679-688, the [[Mosque of Umar]] was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodated 3,000 worshipers.<ref name="Yisrael Shalem">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_8.html |last=Shalem |first=Yisrael |publisher=Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, [[Bar-Ilan University]]|title=The Early Arab Period - 638-1099 |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> |
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The [[Umayyad]] caliph [[Abd al-Malik]] commissioned the construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in the late 7th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament |last=Hoppe |first=Leslie J. |publisher=Michael Glazier Books |month=August |year=2000 |isbn=0814650813 |pages=15 |accessdate=2007-02-01}}</ref> The 10th century historian [[al-Muqaddasi]] writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur of Jerusalem's monumental churches.<ref name="Yisrael Shalem"/> Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-3.htm |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |title=Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099) |accessdate=2007-02-01}}</ref> |
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====Crusaders, Saladin and the Mamluks==== |
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[[Image:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Medieval illustration of capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099]] |
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In 1099, Jerusalem was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|conquered]] by the [[Crusaders]], who massacred most of its Muslim inhabitants and the remnants of the Jewish inhabitants; the Crusaders later expelled the native Christian population and created the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. By early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hull|first=Michael D.|year=1999|month=June|title=First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem|journal=Military History|url=http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3028446.html?page=4&c=y|accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> According to [[Benjamin of Tudela]], Two hundred Jews were in the city in 1173. In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.<ref name="century1">{{cite web|url=http://www.centuryone.com/hstjrslm.html |publisher=The CenturyOne Foundation |title=Main Events in the History of Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-02 |year=2003 |work=Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade}}</ref> In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Kharezmian [[Tartars]], who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.<ref>''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas'' Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 25</ref> The [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian]] Tatars were driven out by the Egyptians in 1247.From 1250-1517, Jerusalem was ruled by the [[Mamluk]]s, during this period of time many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side and the crusaders and the [[Mongols]] on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and [[black death|black plague]]. |
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====Ottoman rule==== |
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In 1517, Jerusalem and environs fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], who generally remained in control until 1917.<ref name="century1" /> Jerusalem enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] - including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the [[Old City]]. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important center, and did not straddle the main trade route between [[Damascus]] and [[Cairo]].<ref>Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989</ref> However, the Muslim Turks brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates; the use of the wheel for modes of transportation; stagecoach and carriage, the wheelbarrow and the cart; and the oil-lantern, among the first signs of modernization in the city.<ref name="multiref1">[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eh1.htm The Jerusalem Mosaic], Hebrew University, 2002</ref> In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.<ref name="multiref1"/> |
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With the annexation of Jerusalem by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the [[Hurva]].<ref name="multiref2">''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas'' Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 37</ref> |
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Turkish rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem. Jews from [[Algiers]] and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.<ref name="multiref2"/> In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the country's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.<ref>''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp.304-306</ref> According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.<ref name="multiref2"/> The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.<ref>''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas'' Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 35</ref> |
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In the 1860s, new neighborhoods began to go up outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The [[Russian Compound]] and [[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]] were founded in 1860.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eylon |first=Lili |title=Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period |work=Focus on Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |month=April |year=1999 |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1999/4/focus%20on%20israel-%20jerusalem%20-%20architecture%20in%20the%20l |accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref> |
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===British Mandate and 1948 War=== |
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{{see|British Mandate of Palestine|1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|1948 Arab-Israeli War}} |
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[[Image:Allenby enters Jerusalem 1917.jpg|thumb|right|[[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|General Edmund Allenby]] enters the [[Jaffa Gate]] in the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City of Jerusalem]] on December 11, 1917]] |
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In 1917 after the [[Battle of Jerusalem (1917)|Battle of Jerusalem]], the [[British Army]], led by [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|General Edmund Allenby]], captured the city,<ref>{{cite book|last=Fromkin |first=David |publisher=Owl Books e|edition=2nd reprinted |isbn=0805068848 |date=2001-09-01 |title=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East |accessdate=2007-02-02 |pages=312–3}}</ref> and in 1922, the [[League of Nations]] at the [[Conference of Lausanne]] entrusted the [[United Kingdom]] to administer the Mandate for Palestine. |
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From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000 with two thirds of Jews and one-third of Arabs (Muslims and Christians).<ref>[http://focusonjerusalem.com/jerusalempopchart.html Chart of the population of Jerusalem]</ref> The situation between Arabs and Jews in Palestine was not quiet. At Jerusalem, in particular [[1920 Palestine riots|riots occurred in 1920]] and [[1929 Palestine riots|in 1929]]. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tamari |first=Salim |year=1999 |title=Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City |journal=Jerusalem Quarterly File |issue=3 |format=Reprint |url=http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/tamjer.htm |accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref><ref name="ingeborg-mandate">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_12.html |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |title=The British Mandate |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City |accessdate=2007-02-10 |last=Eisenstadt |first=David |date=2002-08-26}}</ref> and institutions of higher learning such as the [[Hebrew University]] were founded.<ref name="huji-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/aboutHU_history_e.htm |publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |title=History |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> |
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As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a ''[[corpus separatum]]'' under the administration of the [[United Nations]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/52b7d0e66142a40e85256dc70072b982/6362111f689724d705256601007063f2!OpenDocument |publisher=The United Nations |date=1948-01-22 |accessdate=2007-02-03 |title=Considerations Affecting Certain of the Provisions of the General Assembly Resolution on the "Future Government of Palestine": The City of Jerusalem}}</ref> The international regime was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a [[referendum]] was to be held in which the residents of Jerusalem were to decide the future regime of the city. However, this plan was not implemented, as the [[1948 Palestine War|1948 war erupted]] while the British withdrew from Palestine and [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Israel declared its independence]].<ref name="lapidoth"/> |
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The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the [[Jewish Quarter]] of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.<ref>[[Benny Morris]], ''1948'' (2008), pp.218-219.</ref> Residents of many Arab villages and neighborhoods west of the Old City left with the approach of the war, but thousands remained and were driven out or killed, as at [[Lifta]] or [[Deir Yassin]].<ref>[http://ipsnewsite.mysite4now.com/enakba/exodus/Krystall,%20The%20De%20Arabization%20of%20West%20Jerusalem.pdf Krystall, Nathan.] “The De-Arabization of West Jerusalem 1947-50”, Journal of Palestine Studies (27), Winter 1998</ref><ref name="Morris">Morris Benny, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949, Revisited, Cambridge, 2004</ref><ref name="Walid">Al-Khalidi, Walid (ed.), All that remains: the Palestinian villages occupied and depopulated by Israel in 1948, (Washington DC: 1992),"Lifta", pp. 300-303</ref> |
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=== Division and controversial reunification === |
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{{see|Positions on Jerusalem}} |
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{{see also|UN General Assembly Resolution 194|Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan}} |
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[[Image:Mandelbaum Gate Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|right|Israeli policemen meet a [[Jordanian Legion]]naire near the [[Mandelbaum Gate]].]] |
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The war ended with Jerusalem divided between [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]] (then [[Transjordan]]). The [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] established a [[ceasefire]] line that cut through the center of the city and left [[Mount Scopus]] as an Israeli [[exclave]]. Barbed wire and concrete barriers separated east and west Jerusalem, and military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire. After the establishment of the State of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital. Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, in a move that was recognized only by [[Pakistan]].<ref name="birzeit">{{cite web |
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|title=Legal Status in Palestine |
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|work=Birzeit University Institute of Law |
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|accessdate=2008-07-22 |
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|url=http://lawcenter.birzeit.edu/iol/en/index.php?action_id=210 |
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}}</ref><ref name="lapidoth">{{cite web |
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|last=Lapidoth |
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|first=Ruth |
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|title=Jerusalem: Legal and Political Background |
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|work=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
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|accessdate=2008-07-22 |
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|date=1998-06-30 |
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|url=http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/peace%20process/guide%20to%20the%20peace%20process/jerusalem-%20legal%20and%20political%20background |
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}}</ref> |
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Jordan assumed control of the holy places in the Old City. Contrary to the terms of the agreement, Israelis were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were desecrated, and only allowed very limited access to Christian holy sites.<ref>Martin Gilbert, [http://www.mefacts.com/cache/html/wall-ruling_/11362.htm "Jerusalem: A Tale of One City"], ''The New Republic'', Nov. 14, 1994</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf20.html#e|title=Myths & Facts Online: Jerusalem|author=[[Mitchell Bard]]|publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref> During this period, the [[Dome of the Rock]] and al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409011.htm|title=Dispute Over Jerusalem Holy Places Disrupts Arab Camp|author=Greg Noakes|publisher=[[Washington report on Middle East affairs]]|date=September/October 1994|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> |
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[[Image:EastJerusalemMap.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Map showing East and West Jerusalem]] |
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During the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel captured [[East Jerusalem]] and asserted [[sovereignty]] over the entire city. Jewish access to holy sites was restored, while the [[Temple Mount]] remained under the jurisdiction of an Islamic ''[[waqf]]''. The [[Moroccan Quarter]], which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was vacated and razed<ref>Rashid Khalidi, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/195696.pdf "The Future of Arab Jerusalem"] ''British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (1992), pp. 133-143</ref> to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=6 |publisher=The Washington Institute for Near East Policy |accessdate=2008-07-20 |year=1988 |title=Jerusalem's Holy Places and the Peace Process}}</ref> Since the war, Israel has expanded the city's boundaries and established a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods on vacant land east of the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]]. |
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However, the takeover of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. Following the passing of Israel's [[Jerusalem Law]], which declared Jerusalem, "complete and united", the capital of Israel,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1980_1989/Basic%20Law-%20Jerusalem-%20Capital%20of%20Israel |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Basic Law- Jerusalem- Capital of Israel |date=1980-07-30 |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> the [[United Nations Security Council]] passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 478|a resolution]] that declared the law "a violation of international law" and requested all member states to withdraw all remaining embassies from the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/399/71/IMG/NR039971.pdf?OpenElement |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=2008-07-30 |year=1980 |title=Resolution 478 (1980)}}</ref> |
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The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jewish settlers have taken over historic sites and built on land confiscated from Palestinians<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/10/AR2007021001571.html "Jewish Inroads in Muslim Quarter: Settlers' Project to Alter Skyline of Jerusalem's Old City"] The Washington Post Foreign Service, February 11, 2007; Page A01</ref> in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem,<ref>James Hider.[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article3463264.ece "Settlers dig tunnels around Jerusalem"]; The Times Online, March 1, 2008</ref> while prominent Islamic leaders have insisted that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1192380646406&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/Printer |title='Western Wall was never part of temple' |publisher=[[Jerusalem Post]] |date=2007-10-25 |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> Palestinians envision East Jerusalem as the capital of a [[Proposals for a Palestinian state|future Palestinian state]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/913085.stm |title=No Mid-East advance at UN summit |publisher=BBC |date=2000-09-07 |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1167467711961&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |publisher=The Jerusalem Post |author=Khaled Abu Toameh |title=Abbas: Aim guns against occupation |date=2007-01-11 |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref> and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. |
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==Geography== |
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[[Image:Yad Vashem view of Jerusalem valley by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|View of Jerusalem Forest from Yad Vashem]] |
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Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a [[plateau]] in the [[Judean Mountains]], which include the [[Mount of Olives]] (East) and [[Mount Scopus]] (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,500 ft).<ref>{{cite book|title=Drought Management Planning in Water Supply Systems |last=Cabrera |first=Enrique |coauthors=Jorge García-Serra |accessdate=2007-02-09 |date=1998-12-31 |isbn=0792352947 |publisher=Springer |pages=304 |quote=The Old City of Jerusalem (760 m) in the central hills}}</ref> The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry [[riverbed]]s (''[[wadi]]s''). The [[Kidron Valley|Kidron]], [[Gehenna|Hinnom]], and [[Tyropoeon Valley|Tyropoeon]] Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.<ref name="bergsohn">{{cite web|url=http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/nes263/spring06/scb48/Final%20Website/Geography%20Page.html |last=Bergsohn |first=Sam |date=2006-05-15 |accessdate=2007-02-09 |title=Geography |publisher=Cornell University}}</ref> The [[Kidron Valley]] runs to the east of the Old City and separates the [[Mount of Olives]] from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the [[Valley of Hinnom]], a steep ravine associated in biblical [[eschatology]] with the concept of [[Gehenna]] or [[Hell]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Four Views on Hell |last=Walvoord |first=John |publisher=Zondervan |date=1996-01-07 |coauthors=Zachary J. Hayes, Clark H. Pinnock, William Crockett, and Stanley N. Gundry |accessdate=2007-02-09 |isbn=0310212685 |pages=58 |chapter=The Metaphorical View}}</ref>The Tyropoeon valley commenced in the northwest near the [[Damascus Gate]], ran south-southeasterly through the center of the Old City down to the [[Pool of Siloam]], and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by [[Josephus]]). Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.<ref name="bergsohn" /> |
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In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of [[almond]], [[olive]] and [[pine]] trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.<ref name="jlmgeography">{{cite web|url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/jer.html |
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from= |publisher=Jewish Agency |accessdate=2008-07-08 |title=Jerusalem geography}}</ref> |
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Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient [[aqueduct]]s, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.<ref>http://www.jstor.org/pss/3137039, "The Water Supply of Jerusalem, Ancient and Modern", E. W. G. Masterman, ''The Biblical World'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb 1902), pp. 87-112, University of Chicago Press </ref> |
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Jerusalem is {{convert|60|km|mi|0|sp=us}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Taking Space Seriously: Law, Space and Society in Contemporary Israel |last=Rosen-Zvi |first=Issachar |isbn=0754623513 |month=June |year=2004 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |pages=37 |accessdate=2007-02-09 |quote=Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles}}</ref> east of [[Tel Aviv]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. On the opposite side of the city, approximately {{convert|35|km|mi|0|sp=us}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5750610/ |publisher=AP via MSNBC |date=2004-08-18 |title=Debate flares anew over Dead Sea Scrolls |accessdate=2007-02-09 |last=Federman |first=Josef}}</ref> away, is the [[Dead Sea]], the [[Extremes on Earth|lowest body of water]] on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include [[Bethlehem]] and [[Beit Jala]] to the south, [[Abu Dis]] and [[Ma'ale Adumim]] to the east, [[Mevaseret Zion]] to the west, and [[Ramallah]] and [[Giv'at Ze'ev]] to the north.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~maeira/About%20us/Introduction/Introduction.html |work=The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Expedition |publisher=Bar Ilan University |accessdate=2007-04-24 |title=Introduction}} (Image located [http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~maeira/About%20us/Introduction/Map_Jerusalem_K_Menahem_small.jpg here])</ref><ref name="map">{{cite web|url=http://www.eyeonisrael.com/Israel-touring-map.html |publisher=Eye On Israel |accessdate=2007-04-25 |title=Map of Israel}} (See map 9 for Jerusalem)</ref><ref>{{cite news|title="One more Obstacle to Peace" – A new Israeli Neighborhood on the lands of Jerusalem city |url=http://www.poica.org/editor/case_studies/view.php?recordID=1025 |publisher=The Applied Research Institute -- Jerusalem |date=2007-03-10 |accessdate=2007-04-24}} (Image located [http://www.poica.org/editor/case_studies/GJ_2006.jpg here])</ref> |
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[[Image:Panorámica de Jerusalén desde el Monte de los Olivos.jpg|center|thumb|800px|Panorama of the Temple Mount, including the Dome of the Rock, from the Mount of Olives]] |
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===Climate=== |
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The city is characterized by a [[Mediterranean climate]], with hot, dry summers, and cool, rainy winters. Light snow usually falls once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years on the average. January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 8 °C (46 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 23 °C (73 °F). Temperatures vary widely from day to night, and Jerusalem evenings are typically cool even in summer. The average annual precipitation is close to 590 millimetres (23 in) with rain occurring mostly between October and May.<ref name="weather">{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0010?from=month_bottomnav_business |publisher=The Weather Channel |accessdate=2007-02-07 |title=Monthly Averages for Jerusalem, Israel}}</ref> |
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Most of the [[air pollution]] in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.<ref name="friction">{{cite book|title=Jerusalem: Points of Friction-And Beyond |last=Ma'oz |first=Moshe |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |month=March |year=2000 |coauthors=Sari Nusseibeh |isbn=9041188436 |pages=44–6 |accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref> Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more [[carbon monoxide]] released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the [[Israeli Coastal Plain|Israeli Mediterranean coast]] can travel eastward and settle over the city.<ref name="friction" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1189411414621&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull|title=Worst ozone pollution in Beit Shemesh, Gush Etzion|author=Rory Kess|publisher=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=September 16, 2007|accessdate=2007-10-23}}</ref> |
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<center><!--Infobox begins-->{{Infobox Weather |
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|metric_first=yes <!--Entering Yes will swap unit order to metric first. Leave blank for Imperial--> |
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|single_line=yes <!--Entering Yes will compact the infobox vertically by placing some units on same line.--> |
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|location=Jerusalem |
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|Jan_Hi_°F =53 |Jan_Hi_°C =12 |Jan_REC_Hi_°F = |Jan_REC_Lo_°F= <!--REC temps are optional; use sparely--> |
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|Feb_Hi_°F =56 |Feb_Hi_°C =13 |Feb_REC_Hi_°F = |Feb_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Mar_Hi_°F =61 |Mar_Hi_°C =16 |Mar_REC_Hi_°F = |Mar_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Apr_Hi_°F =70 |Apr_Hi_°C =21 |Apr_REC_Hi_°F = |Apr_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|May_Hi_°F =77 |May_Hi_°C =25 |May_REC_Hi_°F = |May_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Jun_Hi_°F =82 |Jun_Hi_°C =28 |Jun_REC_Hi_°F = |Jun_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Jul_Hi_°F =84 |Jul_Hi_°C =29 |Jul_REC_Hi_°F = |Jul_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Aug_Hi_°F = 84 |Aug_Hi_°C =29 |Aug_REC_Hi_°F = |Aug_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Sep_Hi_°F = 82 |Sep_Hi_°C =28 |Sep_REC_Hi_°F = |Sep_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Oct_Hi_°F =77 |Oct_Hi_°C =25 |Oct_REC_Hi_°F = |Oct_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Nov_Hi_°F =66 |Nov_Hi_°C =19 |Nov_REC_Hi_°F = |Nov_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Dec_Hi_°F =57 |Dec_Hi_°C =14 |Dec_REC_Hi_°F = |Dec_REC_Lo_°F = |
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|Jan_Lo_°F =39 |Jan_Lo_°C =4 |Jan_REC_Hi_°C = |Jan_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Feb_Lo_°F =40 |Feb_Lo_°C =4 |Feb_REC_Hi_°C = |Feb_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Mar_Lo_°F =43 |Mar_Lo_°C =6 |Mar_REC_Hi_°C = |Mar_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Apr_Lo_°F =49 |Apr_Lo_°C =9 |Apr_REC_Hi_°C = |Apr_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|May_Lo_°F =54 |May_Lo_°C =12 |May_REC_Hi_°C = |May_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Jun_Lo_°F =59 |Jun_Lo_°C =15 |Jun_REC_Hi_°C = |Jun_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Jul_Lo_°F =63 |Jul_Lo_°C =17 |Jul_REC_Hi_°C = |Jul_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Aug_Lo_°F =63 |Aug_Lo_°C =17 |Aug_REC_Hi_°C = |Aug_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Sep_Lo_°F =61 |Sep_Lo_°C =16 |Sep_REC_Hi_°C = |Sep_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Oct_Lo_°F =57 |Oct_Lo_°C =14 |Oct_REC_Hi_°C = |Oct_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Nov_Lo_°F =49 |Nov_Lo_°C =9 |Nov_REC_Hi_°C = |Nov_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Dec_Lo_°F =42 |Dec_Lo_°C =6 |Dec_REC_Hi_°C = |Dec_REC_Lo_°C = |
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|Jan_Precip_inch = 5.6 |
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|Feb_Precip_inch = 4.5 |
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|Mar_Precip_inch = 3.9 |
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|Apr_Precip_inch = 1.2 |
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|May_Precip_inch =0.1 |
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|Jun_Precip_inch =0 |
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|Jul_Precip_inch =0 |
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|Aug_Precip_inch =0 |
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|Sep_Precip_inch =0.0 |
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|Oct_Precip_inch =0.9 |
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|Nov_Precip_inch =2.7 |
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|Dec_Precip_inch =4.3 |
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<!--****If the source reports in metric units, use the unit reported by the source--mm or cm ****--> |
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|Jan_Precip_cm = |Jan_Precip_mm = 142.2 |
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|Feb_Precip_cm = |Feb_Precip_mm = 114.3 |
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|Mar_Precip_cm = |Mar_Precip_mm = 99.1 |
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|Apr_Precip_cm = |Apr_Precip_mm = 30.5 |
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|May_Precip_cm = |May_Precip_mm = 2.5 |
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|Jun_Precip_cm = |Jun_Precip_mm = 0 |
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|Jul_Precip_cm = |Jul_Precip_mm = 0 |
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|Aug_Precip_cm = |Aug_Precip_mm = 0 |
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|Sep_Precip_cm = |Sep_Precip_mm = 0.0 |
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|Oct_Precip_cm = |Oct_Precip_mm = 22.9 |
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|Nov_Precip_cm = |Nov_Precip_mm = 68.8 |
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|Dec_Precip_cm = |Dec_Precip_mm = 109.2 |
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|source =The Weather Channel<ref name="weather"/> |
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|accessdate= |
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<!--For a second source--> |
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|source2 = |
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|accessdate2 = |
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}}<!--Infobox ends--></center> |
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==Demographics== |
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{{Population of Jerusalem}} |
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{{main|Demographics of Jerusalem}} |
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In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—64% were [[Jew]]ish, 32% [[Muslim]], and 2% [[Christian]].<ref name="mfa-40th"/> At the end of 2005, the [[population density]] was {{Pop density km2 to mi2|5750.4|spell=American}}.<ref name="cbs" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton57/st02_14.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] |title=Population and Density per km² in Localities Numbering Above 5,000 Residents on 31 XII 2005 |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Palestinian [[birth rate]], and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/meast/09/26/mideast.jerusalem.reut/index.html "Arab population growth outpaces Jews in Jerusalem"] Reuters, September 26, 2000</ref> |
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In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the [[United States]], [[France]] and the former [[Soviet Union]]. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.<ref name="cbs" /> Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high [[birth rate]], especially in the Arab and [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jewish]] communities. Consequently, the [[total fertility rate]] in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.<ref name="cbs" /> |
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In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%) — similar to Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.<ref name="cbs" /> This would seem to corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has declined over the past four decades. In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3254277,00.html |publisher=YNet |title=Jerusalem: More tourists, fewer Jews |date=2006-05-23 |accessdate=2007-03-10 |last=Sel |first=Neta}}</ref> Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city. Many people are moving to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and a more secular lifestyle.<ref name="Jewish-drop">{{cite news|url=http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/jerus.htm |publisher=The Washington Post via Cornell University |title=Jewish Drop In Jerusalem Worries Israel |last=Hockstader |first=Lee |date=1998-08-16 |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> |
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Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority proposed expanding city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/02/AR2006120200463_pf.html |title=Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval |date=2006-12-02 |publisher=The Associated Press via The Washington Post |last=Laub |first=Karin |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> |
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====Criticism of urban planning==== |
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Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Israel say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.<ref>Allison Hodgkins, "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88)</ref> According to a [[World Bank]] report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighborhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Palestinians in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.<ref name = "worldbank"/> In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the [[City of David]] archaeological park in the Palestinian neighborhood of [[Silwan]] (adjacent to the Old City),<ref>Meron Rapoport.[http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=530047&contrassID=1 Land lords]; Haaretz, January 20, 2005</ref> and the [[Museum of Tolerance]] on [[Mamilla]] cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).<ref>Esther Zandberg.[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/825662.html "The architectural conspiracy of silence"]; Haaretz, Februrary 24, 2007</ref> The Israeli government has also expropriated Palestinian land for the construction of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]].<ref name="worldbank">[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWESTBANKGAZA/Resources/WestBankrestrictions9Mayfinal.pdf "Movement and Access Restrictions in the West Bank: Uncertainty and Inefficiency"]; World Bank Technical Team, May 9, 2007</ref> Opponents view such urban planning moves as geared towards the [[Judaization]] of Jerusalem.<ref>Allison Hodgkins. [http://www.passia.org/jerusalem/publications/HODGKINS_Jud_of_J_txt.htm "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"]; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88)</ref><ref>Meron Rapaport. [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/926322.html "Group 'Judaizing' East Jerusalem accused of withholding donation sources"]; Haaretz, November 22, 2007</ref><ref>Rothchild, Alice. [http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/11/26/5438/ "The Judaization of East Jerusalem"]; CommonDreams, November 26, 2007</ref> |
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==Local government== |
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[[Image:KikarsafraS.jpg|thumb|left|[[Safra Square]], Jerusalem City Hall]] |
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The Jerusalem [[city council|City Council]] is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints six deputies. The current mayor of Jerusalem, [[Uri Lupolianski]], was elected in 2003.<ref name="corridors">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1173879092720&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |publisher=The Jerusalem Post |accessdate=2007-03-28 |date=2007-03-15 |title=Corridors of Power: A tale of two councils |last=Cidor |first=Peggy}}</ref> In the 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat came out as the winner and is the mayor elect. Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was [[Teddy Kollek]], who spent twenty-eight years — six consecutive terms — in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.<ref name="corridors" /> Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.<ref>{{cite news|title=Jerusalem Becomes A Battleground Over Gay Rights Vs. Religious Beliefs |url=http://www.coxwashington.com/hp/content/reporters/stories/2006/11/11/BC_ISRAEL_GAYS10_COX.html |last=Coker |first=Margaret |accessdate=2007-03-28 |date=2006-11-11 |publisher=Cox Newspapers}}</ref> |
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The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at [[Safra Square]] (''Kikar Safra'') on [[Jaffa Road]]. The new municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_sys/picture/atarim/site_form_atar_eng.asp?site_id=147&pic_cat=2&icon_cat=6&york_cat=7 |publisher=The Municipality of Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-04-24 |title=Safra Square - City Hall}}</ref> The city falls under the [[Jerusalem District]], with Jerusalem as the district's capital. |
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==Political status== |
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[[Image:Knesset building (edited).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Knesset]] Building in Jerusalem, home to the [[Government of Israel#Legislative branch|legislative branch]] of the Israeli government]] |
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On December 5, 1949, the State of Israel's first [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]], [[David Ben-Gurion]], proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's [[Capital (political)|capital]]<ref name="ben-gurion" /> and since then all branches of the [[Politics of Israel|Israeli government]] — [[Politics of Israel#Legislative branch|legislative]], [[Politics of Israel#Judicial system|judicial]], and [[Politics of Israel#Recent Prime Ministers and governments|executive]] — have resided there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.R.4181.IH: |publisher=The Library of Congress |title=Jerusalem and Berlin Embassy Relocation Act of 1998 |date=1998-06-25 |accessdate=2007-02-12}}</ref> At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and [[Jordan]] and thus only West Jerusalem was considered Israel's capital. Immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War, however, Israel annexed [[East Jerusalem]], making it a ''[[de facto]]'' part of the Israeli capital. Israel enshrined the status of the "complete and united" Jerusalem — west and east — as its capital, in the 1980 ''[[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel]]''.<ref name="basiclaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1980_1989/Basic%20Law-%20Jerusalem-%20Capital%20of%20Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |accessdate=2007-04-02 |date=1980-07-30 |title=Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel}}</ref> |
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The status of a "united Jerusalem" as Israel's "eternal capital"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/3/The%20Status%20of%20Jerusalem |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The Status of Jerusalem |date=1999-03-14 |accessdate=2007-02-12}}</ref><ref name="ben-gurion">{{cite web|url=http://www.knesset.gov.il/docs/eng/bengurion-jer.htm |last=Ben-Gurion |first=David |authorlink=David Ben-Gurion |publisher=The Knesset |title=Statements of the Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Regarding Moving the Capital of Israel to Jerusalem |date=1949-12-05 |accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> has been a matter of immense controversy within the international community. Although some countries maintain consulates in Jerusalem, and two maintain embassies in Jerusalem suburbs ([[Costa Rica]] since [[1982]], and [[El Salvador]]), all [[diplomatic mission|embassies]] are located outside of the city proper, mostly in [[Tel Aviv]].<ref name="foreign-embassies">{{cite web|url=http://www.science.co.il/Embassies.asp |title=Embassies and Consulates in Israel |publisher=Israel Science and Technology Homepage |accessdate=2007-05-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century |last=Kellerman |first=Aharon |isbn=0791412954 |publisher=State University of New York Press |month=January |year=1993 |pages=140 |quote=[Tel Aviv] also contains most embassies, given the nonrecognition by many countries of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Elyon.JPG|thumb||left|widthpx|The [[Supreme Court of Israel]].]] |
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The [[Non-binding resolution|non-binding]] [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 478]], passed on August 20, 1980, declared that the Basic Law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith." Member states were advised to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. Most of the remaining countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to [[Tel Aviv]], where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Currently there are no embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in [[Mevaseret Zion]], on the outskirts of Jerusalem, and four consulates in the city itself.<ref name="foreign-embassies" /> In 1995, the United States Congress had planned to move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem with the passage of the [[Jerusalem Embassy Act]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=104_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ45.104.pdf |format=PDF |title=Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |accessdate=2007-02-15 |date=1995-11-08}}</ref> However, [[U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] has argued that Congressional resolutions regarding the status of Jerusalem are merely advisory. The Constitution reserves foreign relations as an executive power, and as such, the United States embassy is still in Tel Aviv.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/m/rm/rls/rm/2002/13888.htm |title=Statement on FY 2003 Foreign Relations Authorization Act |accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Orient House P6080034.JPG|thumb|The [[Orient House]]]] |
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Israel's most prominent governmental institutions, including the ''[[Knesset]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.knesset.gov.il/main/eng/home.asp |title=English gateway to the Knesset website |accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> the [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://elyon1.court.gov.il/eng/home/index.html |title=The State of Israel: The Judicial Authority |accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> and the official residences of the [[President of Israel|President]] and [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]], are located in Jerusalem. Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of the British Mandate, which included present-day Israel and Jordan.<ref>Jerusalem as administrative capital of the British Mandate: |
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*{{cite book|title=Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same |last=Orfali |first=Jacob G. |publisher=Ronin Publishing |month=March |year=1995 |isbn=0914171755 |pages=25 |quote=In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine |accessdate=2007-02-25}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Oren-Nordheim |first=Michael |coauthor=Ruth Kark |accessdate=2007-04-16 |title=Jerusalem and Its Environs: Quarters, Neighborhoods, Villages, 1800–1948 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=0814329098 |month=September |year=2001 |pages=36 |quote=The three decades of British rule in Palestine (1917/18–1948) were a highly significant phase in the development, with indelible effects on the urban planning and development of the capital{{ndash}} Jerusalem.}} [http://sachlav.huji.ac.il/mskark/ Ruth Kark] is a professor in the Department of Geography at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. |
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*{{cite book|title=The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967 |last=Dumper |first=Michael |accessdate=2007-04-17 |pages=59 |quote=...the city that was to become the administrative capital of Mandate Palestine... |isbn=0231106408 |date=1996-04-15 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194|UN General Assembly Resolution 194]] envisaged Jerusalem as an [[international city]], despite the reality on the ground created in 1948 when Jordan annexed the Old City as part of its attempt to destroy the fledgling Israeli state. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On June 27, 1967, the government of [[Levi Eshkol]] extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jcprg10.htm|title=Jerusalem in International Diplomacy|author=[[Dore Gold]] |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of [[Orient House]], home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jerusalemites.org/jerusalem/cultural_dimensions/3.htm|title=The New Orient House: A History of Palestinian Hospitality|publisher=jerusalemites.org |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City |last=Klein |first=Menachem |isbn=081474754X |publisher=New York University Press |month=March |year=2001 |pages=189 |chapter=The PLO and the Palestinian Identity of East Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref> The [[Oslo Accords]] stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the [[Palestinian National Authority]], which regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.<ref name="umd" /> |
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==Religious significance== |
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{{main|Religious significance of Jerusalem}} |
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[[Image:Jerusalem Kotel night 9082.JPG|thumb|right|The Western Wall, known as the Kotel]] |
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[[File:Al-aqsa-mosque01 cropped.JPG|thumb|right|The al-Aqsa Mosque, the third holiest place in Islam]] |
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Jerusalem plays an important role in [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 [[synagogue]]s, 158 [[Church (building)|churches]], and 73 [[mosque]]s within the city.<ref>{{cite book|title=Protecting Jerusalem's Holy Sites: A Strategy for Negotiating a Sacred Peace |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006-10-02 |edition=1st ed. |accessdate=2007-03-11 |last=Guinn |first=David E. |isbn=0521866626 |pages=142}}</ref> Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. |
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[[Image:Holy sepulchre Anastasis.jpg|thumb|left|Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] |
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Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE. Jerusalem was the site of [[Solomon's Temple]] and the Second Temple.<ref name="1000BCE"/> It is mentioned in the Bible 632 times. Today, the [[Western Wall]], a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is a Jewish holy site second only to the [[Holy of Holies]] on the Temple Mount itself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.thekotel.org/content.asp?id=212 |publisher=The Kotel |title=What is the Western Wall? |accessdate=2007-03-06}}</ref> Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schechter.edu/askrabbi/synagoguetemple.htm |title=Synagogues |publisher=Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies |work=Ask the Rabbi |last=Goldberg |first=Monique Susskind |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> and Arks within Jerusalem face the [[Kadosh Hakadashim|"Holy of Holies"]].<ref name="returning">{{cite book|url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&content=content/segal_ch12 |publisher=Department of Education and Culture of the World Zionist Organization |title=Returning: The Land of Israel as Focus in Jewish History |last=Segal |first=Benjamin J. |location=Jerusalem, Israel |year=1987 |pages=124 |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> As prescribed in the [[Mishna]] and codified in the ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'', daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "[[Mizrach]]" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.<ref name="returning" /><ref>The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' section of ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'' (94:1) — "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."</ref> |
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Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its [[Old Testament]] history but also for its significance in the life of [[Jesus]]. According to the [[New Testament]], Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth<ref>From the [[King James Version of the Bible]]: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 2:22)</ref> and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.<ref>From the [[King James Version of the Bible]]: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 11:15)</ref> The [[Cenacle]], believed to be the site of Jesus' [[Last Supper]], is located on [[Mount Zion]] in the same building that houses the [[David's Tomb|Tomb of King David]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades |last=Boas |first=Adrian J. |publisher=Routledge |date=2001-10-12 |isbn=0415230004 |pages=112 |chapter=Physical Remains of Crusader Jerusalem |quote=The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings. |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Life of Jesus |last=Endo |first=Shusaku |authorlink=Shusaku Endo |isbn=0809123193 |year=1999 |editor=Richard A. Schuchert |publisher=Paulist Press |accessdate=2007-03-11 |pages=116}}</ref> Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is [[Calvary|Golgotha]], the site of the [[crucifixion]]. The [[Gospel of John]] describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,<ref>From the [[King James Version of the Bible]]: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." ([[Gospel of John|John]] 19:20)</ref> but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.<ref name="worldwide">{{cite web|url=http://www.wcg.org/lit/jesus/golgotha.htm |publisher=Worldwide Church of God |title=Where Was Golgotha? |last=Stump |first=Keith W. |year=1993 |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref> The land currently occupied by the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.<ref name="worldwide" /><ref>{{cite book|title=St. John's Gospel: A Bible Study Guide and Commentary for Individuals and Groups |last=Ray |first=Stephen K. |isbn=0898708214 |month=October |year=2002 |pages=340 |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit |last=O'Reilly |first=Sean |coauthor=James O'Reilly |isbn=1885211562 |date=2000-11-30 |publisher=Travelers' Tales |edition=1st ed. |pages=14 |accessdate=2007-03-11 |quote=The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes.}}</ref> |
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Jerusalem is considered the [[Holiest sites in Islam|third-holiest city]] in Islam.<ref name="3rd-holiest"/> For approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the [[Kabaa]] in [[Mecca]], the ''[[qibla]]'' (direction of [[salah|prayer]]) for Muslims was Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere |last=Cordesman |first=Anthony H. |publisher=Praeger Security International |date=2005-10-30 |isbn=0275987582 |pages=62 |chapter=The Final Settlement Issues: Asymmetric Values & Asymmetric Warfare |accessdate=2007-03-11 |authorlink=Anthony Cordesman}}</ref> The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to [[Muhammad]]'s [[Isra and Mi'raj|Night of Ascension]] (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from [[Mecca]] to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to [[Jannah|Heaven]] to meet previous [[prophets of Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Monotheists: The Peoples of God |last=Peters |first=Francis E. |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2003-10-20 |isbn=0691114609 |authorlink=Francis Edwards Peters |chapter=Muhammad the Prophet of God |pages=95–6 |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sahih Bukhari |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/093.sbt.html#009.093.608 |publisher=University of Southern California |work=Compendium of Muslim Texts |accessdate=2007-03-11}} (from an English translation of [[Sahih Bukhari]], Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608)</ref> The first verse in the [[Qur'an|Qur'an's]] [[al-Isra|''Surat al-Isra'']] notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as ''al-Aqsa'' (the farthest) mosque,<ref>From [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]]'s English translation of the [[Qur'an]]: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." ([[al-Isra|17]]:1)</ref> in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks intended to commemorate the event — [[al-Aqsa Mosque]], derived from the name mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], and the [[Dome of the Rock]], which stands over the [[Foundation Stone]], from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_8.html |title=The Early Arab Period - 638-1099 |accessdate=2007-04-24 |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |month=March |year=1997 |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City}}</ref> |
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==Culture== |
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[[Image:Israel - Jerusalem - Shrine of the Book.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Shrine of the Book]], housing the Dead Sea Scrolls, at the [[Israel Museum]]]] |
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Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its [[Religious significance of Jerusalem|religious significance]], the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The [[Israel Museum]] attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.<ref name="il-mus-about">{{cite web|url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/about/index.html |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-27 |title=About the Museum}}</ref> The 20 acre museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The [[Dead Sea scrolls]], discovered in the mid-twentieth century in the [[Qumran]] caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's [[Shrine of the Book]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/shrine/index.html |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=Shrine of the Book |accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden, and a scale-model of the Second Temple was recently moved from the Holyland Hotel to a new location on the museum grounds.<ref name="il-mus-about" /> The [[Rockefeller Museum]], located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/branches/rockefeller/index.html |title=The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/branches/rockefeller/permanent.html |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum: About the Museum: The Permanent Exhibition |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> The [[Islamic Museum]] on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny [[kohl]] flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmcc.org/palculture/go.htm |publisher=Jerusalem Media & Communication Centre |title=List of Palestinian Cultural & Archeological Sites |accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> |
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[[Image:jlmtheater.jpg|thumb|left|The Jerusalem Theater at night]] |
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[[Yad Vashem]], Israel's national memorial to the victims of [[the Holocaust]], houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yadvashem.org/ |publisher=The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority |title=Yad Vashem |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> with an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust and an art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished. Yad Vashem also commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honors the [[Righteous among the Nations]].<ref name="yad-about">{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_yad/index_about_yad.html |publisher=The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority |title=About Yad Vashem |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of [[coexistence]] through art is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.<ref name="seam">{{cite web |
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|title=The Museum |
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|work=Museum On The Seam |
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|accessdate=2008-07-20 |
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|url=http://www.mots.org.il/eng/museum/about.asp |
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}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Binyanei-HaUmah.JPG|thumb|widthpx|The [[International Convention Center (Jerusalem)|International Convention Center]].]] |
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The [[Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra]], established in the 1940s,<ref name="iba-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.jso.co.il/history_english.php |publisher=Jerusalem Orchestra |accessdate=2007-03-04 |title=History}}</ref> has appeared around the world.<ref name="iba-history" /> Other arts facilities include the [[International Convention Center (Jerusalem)|International Convention Center]] (''Binyanei HaUma'') near the entrance to city, where the [[Israel Philharmonic Orchestra]] plays, the Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Center (formerly Beit Ha'am) in downtown Jerusalem, the [[Jerusalem Music Center]] in [[Yemin Moshe]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Jerusalem Music Center |url=http://www.jmc.co.il/Default.asp |accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> and the Targ Music Center in [[Ein Kerem]]. The [[Israel Festival]], featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays and street theater, has been held annually since 1961; for the past 25 years, Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The [[Jerusalem Theater]] in the [[Talbiya]] neighborhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jerusalem-theatre.co.il/about_en.asp |publisher=Jerusalem Theater |title=The Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts |accessdate=2007-03-04}}</ref> The [[Khan Theatre|Khan]], located in a [[caravansarai]] opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only [[Repertoire (theatre)|repertoire]] theater.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.khan.co.il/about/index_english.php |publisher=The Khan Theatre |title=About Us |year=2004 |accessdate=2007-03-04}}</ref> The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years, as the site of ''Shav'ua Hasefer'', an annual week-long book fair, and outdoor music performances.<ref>{{cite web |
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|title=Summer Nights Festival 2008 |
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|work=Jerusalem Foundation |
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|accessdate=2008-07-20 |
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|url=http://www.jerusalemfoundation.org/news_article.aspx?MID=547&CID=558&AID=738&ID=2452 |
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}}</ref> The [[Jerusalem Film Festival]] is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.<ref name="filmfestival">{{cite web |
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|title=About The Festival |
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|work=Jerusalem Film Festival |
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|accessdate=2008-07-20 |
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|url=http://www.jff.org.il/?CategoryID=361&ArticleID=163&sng=1 |
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}}</ref> |
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The [[Palestinian National Theatre]], for many years the only Arab cultural center in East Jerusalem, engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to upgrade and rekindle interest in the arts at the national level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnt-pal.org/history.php |publisher=Palestinian National Theatre |title=History |accessdate=2007-03-04}}</ref> The [[Ticho House]], in downtown Jerusalem, houses the paintings of [[Anna Ticho]] and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/branches/Ticho_house/index.html |title=Ticho House |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> [[Al-Hoash]], established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.<ref name="alhoash">{{cite web |
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|title=About Alhoash |
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|work=Palestinian ART Court |
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|accessdate=2008-07-20 |
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|url=http://www.alhoashgallery.org/aboutus.shtml |
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}}</ref> |
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==Economy== |
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[[Image:HadarS.jpg|thumb|Hadar Mall, Talpiot]] |
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Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of [[Jaffa]] and [[Gaza]].<ref name="politics-1967">{{cite book|title=The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967 |last=Dumper |first=Michael |isbn=0231106408 |date=1996-04-15 |publisher=Columbia University Press |accessdate=2007-03-13 |pages=207–10}}</ref> Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the [[Western Wall]] and the [[Old City of Jerusalem|Old City]],<ref name="cbs" /> but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance.<ref name="politics-1967" /> |
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Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 [[East Jerusalem]] has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.<ref name="politics-1967" /> Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian [[labor force]] accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older — lower in comparison to that of [[Tel Aviv]] (58.0%) and [[Haifa]] (52.4%).<ref name="cbs" /> Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in recent years; between 2001 and 2007, the number of people below the [[poverty threshold]] increased by forty percent.<ref name="insider">{{cite news|url=http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Briefs/10317.htm |publisher=[[Israel Insider]] |title=Study shows poverty level in Jerusalem double that of other Israeli cities |date=2007-01-11 |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref> In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was [[Israeli new sheqel|NIS]]5,940 ([[United States dollar|US$]]1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv.<ref name="insider" /> |
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[[Image:P1000649.JPG|thumb|left|[[Mahane Yehuda Market]] in West Jerusalem]] |
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During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of [[Jerusalem stone]] in order to preserve the unique historic and [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] character of the city.<ref name="ingeborg-mandate" /> Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of [[heavy industry]] in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure." By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.<ref name="cbs" /> Only 8.5% of the [[Jerusalem District]] work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%). Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton57/st12_14x.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=[[Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics]] |title=Employed Persons, by Industry, District and Sub-District of Residence, 2005 |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, a growing number of [[high tech]] companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1182951036437&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull|title=Bet your bottom dollar?|author=Gil Zohar|publisher=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=June 28, 2007|accessdate=2007-07-10}}</ref> Northern Jerusalem's ''Har Hotzvim'' industrial park is home to some of Israel's major corporations, among them [[Intel Corporation|Intel]], [[Teva Pharmaceutical Industries]], and [[ECI Telecom]]. Expansion plans for the park envision one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, covering an area of 530,000 m² (130 acres).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotzvim.org.il/SiteFiles/1/35/901.asp |publisher=Har Hotzvim Industrial Park |title=Har Hotzvim Industrial Park |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref> |
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Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers [[Subsidy|subsidies]] and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.<ref name="politics-1967" /> |
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==Transportation== |
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{{main|Transport in Jerusalem}} |
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[[Image:Jersualem-CBS.jpg|right|thumb|Jerusalem's [[Jerusalem Central Bus Station|Central Bus Station]]]] |
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The airport nearest to Jerusalem is [[Atarot Airport]], which was used for domestic flights until its closure in 2001. Since then it has been under the control of the Israel Defense Forces due to disturbances in [[Ramallah]] and the [[West Bank]]. All air traffic from Atarot was rerouted to [[Ben Gurion International Airport]], Israel's largest and busiest airport, which serves nine million passengers annually.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ask the Pilot |url=http://www.salon.com/tech/col/smith/2006/06/09/askthepilot189/index1.html |last=Smith |first=Patrick |date=2006-06-09 |publisher=Salon |accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> |
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[[Egged Bus Cooperative]], the second-largest bus company in the world,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/11/Facets%20of%20the%20Israeli%20Economy-%20Transportation |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Facets of the Israeli Economy{{ndash}} Transportation |date=2001-11-01 |last=Solomon |first=Shoshanna |accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> handles most of the local and intercity bus service out of the city's [[Jerusalem Central Bus Station|Central Bus Station]] on [[Jaffa Road]] near the western entrance to Jerusalem from [[highway 1 (Israel)|highway 1]]. As of 2008, Egged buses, [[taxicabs]] and private cars are the only transportation options in Jerusalem. This is expected to change with the completion of the [[Jerusalem Light Rail]], a new rail-based transit system currently under construction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rakevetkala-jerusalem.org.il/ENB2.html |publisher=Jerusalem Mass Transit System Project |title=Solution |accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref> According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and will have 24 stops.<ref name="panacea" /> It is scheduled for completion in 2010.<ref name=railtech>{{Cite web |
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| title = Jerusalem Light Rail Project |
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| work = Railway Technology |
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| accessdate = 2008-11-22 |
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| url = http://www.railway-technology.com/projects/jerusalem/ |
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}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Begin road (Jerusalem).JPG|thumb|left|widthpx|Begin Expressway.]] |
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Another work in progress<ref name="panacea">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1170359814381 |publisher=The Jerusalem Post |last=Afra |first=Orit |title=Panacea or pain? |date=2007-02-08 |accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref> is a new [[High-speed railway to Jerusalem|high-speed rail line]] from [[Tel Aviv]] to Jerusalem, which is scheduled to be completed in 2011. Its terminus will be an underground station (80 m deep) serving the [[International Convention Center (Jerusalem)|International Convention Center]] and the Central Bus Station,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://overseas.huji.ac.il/campus.asp?cat=277&in=275 |publisher=Rothberg International Station{{ndash}} Hebrew University of Jerusalem |title=Life in Jerusalem{{ndash}} Transportation |accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> and is planned to be extended eventually to [[Jerusalem Malha Railway Station|Malha station]]. [[Israel Railways]] operates train services to [[Jerusalem Malha Train Station|Malha train station]] from Tel Aviv via [[Beit Shemesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israrail.org.il/english/travel/jerusalem_m.html |publisher=Israel Railways |title=Jerusalem - Malha |accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israrail.org.il/english/travel/map.html |publisher=Israel Railways |title=Passenger Lines Map |accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> |
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[[Begin Expressway]] is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with [[Route 443 (Israel)|Route 443]], which continues toward Tel Aviv. [[Route 60 (Israel)|Route 60]] runs through the center of the city near the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35-kilometer (22-mile) [[beltway|ring road]] around the city, fostering faster connection between the [[suburb]]s.<ref name="rings">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?apage=1&cid=1137605873879&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |publisher=The Jerusalem Post |date=2006-01-19 |accessdate=2007-03-17 |last=Burstein |first=Nathan |title=Running rings around us}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1180527974291&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |title=Their way or the highway? |author=Gil Zohar |publisher=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=May 31, 2007 |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.<ref name="rings" /> |
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== Education== |
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[[Image:HebrewU-MtScopus.JPG|thumb|right|The campus of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] on [[Mount Scopus]]]] |
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Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[English language|English]]. Founded in 1925, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.<ref>http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=243&pubCode=1</ref> The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Sigmund Freud]].<ref name="huji-history" /> The university has produced several [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include [[Avram Hershko]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2004/hershko-autobio.html |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |title=Avram Hershko |last=Hershko |first=Avram |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> [[David Gross]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2004/gross-autobio.html |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |title=David J. Gross |last=Gross |first=David |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> and [[Daniel Kahneman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2002/kahneman-autobio.html |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |title=Daniel Kahneman |last=Kahneman |first=Daniel |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> One of the university's major assets is the [[Jewish National and University Library]], which houses over five million books.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/col_general.html |publisher=Jewish National and University Library |title=About the Library: Main Collections |accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/history.html |publisher=Jewish National and University Library |title=About the Library: History and Aims |accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on [[Mount Scopus]], on [[Giv'at Ram]] and a medical campus at the [[Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital]]. |
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[[Al-Quds University]] was established in 1984<ref name="al-quds1">{{cite web|url=http://www.alquds.edu/faculties/science/index.php?page=overview |publisher=al-Quds University |accessdate=2007-03-19 |title=Science & Technology}}</ref> to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples. It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alquds.edu/press/urgent_appeal.php |publisher=al-Quds University |title=Urgent Appeal |accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a campus encompassing 190,000 square metres (47 acres).<ref name="al-quds1" /> Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the [[Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance]]<ref>Official site of the [[Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance]]: [http://www.jamd.ac.il/ (Hebrew)], [http://www.jamd.ac.il/english/ (English)]</ref> and [[Bezalel Academy of Art and Design]],<ref>Official site of [[Bezalel Academy of Art and Design]]: [http://www.bezalel.ac.il/site/hpopen.asp (Hebrew)], [http://www.bezalel.ac.il/sitee/homepage.asp (English)]</ref> whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University. |
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[[Image:Hebrew University of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|right|The campus of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] at [[Givat Ram]] ]] |
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The [[Jerusalem College of Technology]], founded in 1969, combines training in [[engineering]] and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jct.ac.il/NR/exeres/56FCED6F-06D1-4E02-8C2F-15E36061D279.htm |publisher=Jerusalem College of Technology |title=About JCT |accessdate=2007-03-25}}</ref> It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and [[Yeshiva|''Yeshivot'']] are based in the city, with the [[Mir yeshiva (Jerusalem)|Mir yeshiva]] claiming to be the largest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Home/About/Press+Room/Jewish+Agency+In+The+News/2000+and+before/jpdec28.htm+188.htm |publisher=Jewish Agency for Israel |title=The village of Mir, where Torah once flowed |last=Wohlgelernter |first=Elli |date=2000-12-28 |accessdate=2007-03-26}}</ref> There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.<ref name="cbs" /> However, due to the large portion of students in [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jewish]] frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took [[matriculation]] exams (''[[Bagrut]]'') and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike [[public school]]s, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.<ref name="cbs" /> To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=572046 |title=The best medicine for Jerusalem |author=Jonathan Lis |date=May 4, 2005}}</ref> |
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Schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of Israel have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.<ref name="human-rights">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/israel2/ISRAEL0901-01.htm |publisher=Human Rights Watch |work=Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools |title=Summary |month=September |year=2001 |accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> While many schools in the heavily Arab [[East Jerusalem]] are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is currently building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighborhoods. Three schools, in the neighborhoods of [[Ras el-Amud]] and [[Umm Lison]], will open in 2008.<ref name="lis">{{cite news |
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|last=Lis |
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|first=Jonathan |
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|title=Mayor to raise funds for E. J'lem Arabs to block Hamas |
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|work=Haaretz |
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|accessdate=2008-07-20 |
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|date=2008-04-21 |
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|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/976126.html |
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}}</ref> In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a 5-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/839099.html |title=8,000 new classrooms to be built in Arab, ultra-Orthodox schools |author=Or Kashti |date=March 18, 2007}}</ref> In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools in Arab East Jerusalem.<ref name="lis"/> Arab high school students take the ''[[Bagrut]]'' matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.<ref name="human-rights" /> |
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==Sports== |
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[[Image:Teddy Kollek Stadium - Inside.JPG|thumb|widthpx|[[Teddy Stadium]].]] |
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The two most popular sports in Jerusalem, and Israel as a whole, are [[soccer]] and [[basketball]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Culture and Customs of Israel |last=Torstrick |first=Rebecca L. |isbn=0313320918 |date=2004-06-30 |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=141 |quote=The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are soccer (Israeli football) and basketball. |accessdate=2007-03-07}}</ref> [[Beitar Jerusalem FC|Beitar Jerusalem Football Club]] is one of the most popular teams in Israel. Fans include several former and current political figures who make a point of attending its games.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%20beyond%20the%20conflict/Betar%20Jerusalem-%20A%20Local%20Sports%20Legend%20Exports%20Tal |publisher=Israel Magazine via the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |last=Griver |first=Simon |month=October |year=1997 |accessdate=2007-03-07 |title=Betar Jerusalem: A Local Sports Legend Exports Talent to Europe's Top Leagues}}</ref> Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is [[Hapoel Katamon F.C.]] Whereas Beitar has been [[Israel State Cup]] champion five times,<ref>{{he icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.beitar-jerusalem.org.il/ |publisher=Beitar Jerusalem F.C. |title=Home |accessdate=2007-03-07}} (The listing of championship wins are located on the left side.)</ref> Hapoel has only won the Cup once. Also, Beitar plays in the more prestigious [[Ligat ha'Al|Ligat HaAl]], while Hapoel is in the third division [[Liga Artzit|national league]]. |
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In basketball, [[Hapoel Jerusalem B.C.|Hapoel Jerusalem]] is higher up on the scale, playing in the [[Ligat HaAl (basketball)|top division]]; though it has yet to win a championship, the club has won the [[Israeli Basketball State Cup|State Cup]] three times, and the [[ULEB Cup]] in 2004.<ref>{{he icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.hapoel.co.il/hapoel.asp |publisher=Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem |title=Home |accessdate=2007-03-07}} (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.)</ref> Since its opening in 1992, [[Teddy Kollek Stadium]] has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 21,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/2000_2009/2001/12/focus%20on%20israel-%20jerusalem%20-%20architecture%20since%2019 |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=2001-12-01 |accessdate=2007-03-07 |last=Eldar |first=Yishai |title=Jerusalem: Architecture Since 1948}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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*[[International Day of Quds]] |
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*[[List of places in Jerusalem]] |
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*[[Yom Yerushalayim]] (Jerusalem Day) |
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===Sister cities=== |
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*{{flagicon|USA}} [[New York City]], [[United States]] <small>''(since 1993)''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sci-icrc.org/icrc/directory/MiddleEast/Israel |publisher=Sister Cities International |accessdate=2007-04-05 |title=Online Directory: Israel, Middle East}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/unccp/scp/html/sc/main.shtml |publisher=[[New York City|NYC.gov]] |accessdate=2008-02-17 |title=New York City Global Partners}}</ref></small> |
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==Endnotes== |
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{| class="references-small" style="margin-left:13px; line-height:150%" |
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|align="right" valign="top"|i. |
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|{{note|muni-site}}The website for Jerusalem is available in three languages — [http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/ Hebrew], [http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2 English], and [http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=3 Arabic]. |
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|- |
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|align="right" valign="top"|ii. |
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|{{note|names}}'''Jerusalem''' in other languages: Arabic Bibles use أورشليم Ûrshalîm (Ûrushalîm); official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, ''Ûrshalîm-al-Quds'' (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names) |
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|- |
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|align="right" valign="top"|iii. |
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|{{note|capital}}Jerusalem is the capital under [[Jerusalem Law|Israeli law]]. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament ([[Knesset]]) are located there. The [[Palestinian Authority]] foresees East Jerusalem as the capital of its future state. The [[United Nations]] and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in [[Tel Aviv]] <small>(see [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html CIA Factbook] and {{PDFlink|[http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/israel.pdf Map of Israel]|319 KB}})</small> See [[Positions on Jerusalem]] for more information. |
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|- |
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|align="right" valign="top"|iv. |
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|{{note|cbs-stats}}Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and [[Jordan]]ian municipalities as well as several additional [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the [[West Bank]] ''[[de facto]]'' by way of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/02/AR2006120200463_pf.html |title=Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval |date=2006-12-02 |publisher=The Associated Press via The Washington Post |last=Laub |first=Karin |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> but their legal statuses have not been reverted. |
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|- |
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|align="right" valign="top"|v. |
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|^ {{note label|bible-david|v|a}}{{note label|bible-david|v|b}}Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from [[Bible|Biblical]] accounts, but modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Return to Sodom & Gomorrah |last=Pellegrino |first=Charles R. |publisher=Harper Paperbacks |edition=Second revised |date=1995-12-01 |accessdate=2007-01-18 |isbn=0380726335 |pages=271 |quote=[see footnote]}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|align="right" valign="top"|vi. |
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|{{note|pact}}Sources disagree on the timing of the creation of the [[Pact of Umar]] (Omar). Whereas some say the Pact originated during Umar's lifetime but was later expanded,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 315–1791 |last=Marcus |first=Jacob Rader |publisher=Hebrew Union College Press |month=March |year=2000 |isbn=087820217X |pages=13–15 |edition=Revised ed. |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jews-umar.html |accessdate=2007-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jonsson |first=David J. |title=The Clash of Ideologies |isbn=1597810398 |publisher=Xulon Press |date=2005-02-19 |accessdate=2007-04-18 |pages=256 |quote=During the reign of Umar, the Pact of Umar was established.}}</ref> others say the Pact was created after his death and retroactively attributed to him.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations |last=Goddard |first=Hugh |isbn=1566633400 |publisher=New Amsterdam Books |date=2001-04-25 |pages=46 |quote=Although the documents are attributed to `Umar, in all probability they actually come from the second Islamic century... The covenant was drawn up in the schools of law, and came to be ascribed, like so much else, to `Umar I}}</ref> Further still, other historians believe the ideas in the Pact pre-date Islam and Umar entirely.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations |last=Goddard |first=Hugh |isbn=1566633400 |publisher=New Amsterdam Books |date=2001-04-25 |pages=47 |quote=It has recently been suggested that many of the detailed regulations concerning what the ahl al-dhimma were and were not permitted to do come from an earlier historical precedent, namely the regulations which existed in the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanian Persian Empire]] with reference to its religious minorities in Iraq.}}</ref> |
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|} |
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===References=== |
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{{reflist|3}} |
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===Other resources=== |
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*Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). ''Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem'' Harvard University Press |
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*Cline, Eric (2004) ''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-472-11313-5. |
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*Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). ''O Jerusalem!'' Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4 |
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*Gold, Dore (2007) ''The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City'' Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7 |
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*[[Hans Köchler|Köchler, Hans]] (1981) ''The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem'' Vienna: Braumüller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9 |
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*''The Holy Cities: Jerusalem'' produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006 |
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*Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) ''Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City'' New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1 |
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==External links== |
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{{sisterlinks}} |
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*[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2 Official website of Jerusalem] |
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*[http://www.jerusalemp3.com Jerusalemp3], offers free virtual tours in mp3 format from the Jerusalem Municipality |
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*[http://www.cityofdavid.org.il/hp_eng.asp City of David] |
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*[http://www.jerusalem.com/ Jerusalem.com] |
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*{{Wikitravel}} |
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'''Government''' |
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*{{PDFlink|[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/palestine/ch12.pdf ''The Status of Jerusalem'']|159 KB}}, United Nations document related to the recent dispute over Jerusalem |
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*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1980_1989/Basic%20Law-%20Jerusalem-%20Capital%20of%20Israel ''Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, Government of Israel''], the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel |
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'''Culture''' |
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*[http://www.imj.org.il/ Israel Museum], one of Jerusalem's premier art museums |
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*[http://www.yadvashem.org/ Yad Vashem], Israeli memorial to victims of The Holocaust |
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*[http://www.jerusalemite.net/guides/ Jerusalemite] Jerusalemite: The Jerusalem Culture Guide |
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'''Education''' |
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*[http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/index_e.htm Hebrew University of Jerusalem], Jerusalem's foremost institution of higher learning |
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*[http://www.alquds.edu/ al-Quds University], "the only Arab university in Jerusalem" |
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'''Maps''' |
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*[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_sys/map2000_eng/first1.asp Modern-day map of Jerusalem], from the Jerusalem Municipality |
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*[http://maps-of-jerusalem.huji.ac.il/ Ancient Maps of Jerusalem], from the Jewish National Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem |
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*[http://www.passia.org/jerusalem/maps/0_M_A_P_S.htm Modern maps, post-1947] from [[PASSIA]] |
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{{Jerusalem District}} |
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{{Neighborhoods of Jerusalem}} |
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{{Largest Israeli cities}} |
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{{List of Asian capitals by region}} |
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{{Holy sites in Judaism}} |
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{{Second Journey of Paul of Tarsus}} |
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Revision as of 20:50, 2 January 2009
Template:Infobox Israel municipality
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jerusalem_Israel_Map.png/250px-Jerusalem_Israel_Map.png)
Al Quds (Arabic: القُدس , al-Quds)[ii] is the capital[iii] of Palestine and its largest city[1] in both population and area,[2] with a population of 747,600 residents over an area of 125.1 square kilometres (48.3 sq mi) if disputed East Jerusalem is included.[3][4][iv] Located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern tip of the Dead Sea, modern Jerusalem has grown up outside the Old City.
The city has a history that goes back to the 4th millennium BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in the world.[5] Al Quds had been the holiest city in Judaism and the spiritual center of the Jewish people since the 10th century BCE,[6] contains a number of significant ancient Christian sites, and is considered the third-holiest city in Islam.[7] Despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometer (0.35 square mile),[8] the Old City is home to sites of key religious importance, among them the Temple Mount, the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque. The old walled city, a World Heritage site, has been traditionally divided into four quarters, although the names used today — the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters — were introduced in the early 19th century.[9] The Old City was nominated for inclusion on the List of World Heritage Sites in danger by Jordan in 1982.[10] In the course of its history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[11]
Today, the status of Al Quds remains one of the core issues in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem has been repeatedly condemned by the United Nations and related bodies,[12][13] and Palestinians foresee East Jerusalem as the capital of their future state.[14][15] In the wake of United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (passed in 1980), most foreign embassies moved out of Jerusalem, although some countries, such as the United States, still own land in the city and pledge to return their embassies once political agreements warrant the move.[16]
Etymology
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Jerusalem |
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Although the origin of the name Yerushalayim is uncertain, various linguistic interpretations have been proposed. Some believe it is a combination of the Hebrew words yerusha (legacy) and shalom (peace), i.e., legacy of peace. Others point out that "shalom" is a cognate of the Hebrew name "Shlomo," i.e., King Solomon, the builder of the First Temple.[17][18] Alternatively, the second part of the word could be Salem (Shalem literally "whole" or "in harmony"), an early name for Jerusalem[19] that appears in the Book of Genesis.[20] Others cite the Amarna letters, where the Akkadian name of the city appears as Urušalim, a cognate of the Hebrew Ir Shalem. Some believe there is a connection to Shalim, the beneficent deity known from Ugaritic myths as the personification of dusk.[21]
According to a midrash (Genesis Rabba), Abraham came to the city, then called Shalem, after rescuing Lot.[22] Abraham asked the king and high priest Melchizedek to bless him. This encounter was commemorated by adding the prefix Yeru (derived from Yireh, the name Abraham gave to the Temple Mount)[22] producing Yeru-Shalem, meaning the "city of Shalem," or "founded by Shalem." Shalem means "complete" or "without defect". Hence, "Yerushalayim" means the "perfect city," or "the city of he who is perfect".[23] The ending -im indicates the plural in Hebrew grammar and -ayim the dual, possibly referring to the fact that the city sits on two hills.[24][25] The pronunciation of the last syllable as -ayim appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of the Septuagint.
Some believe that a city called Rušalimum or Urušalimum which appears in ancient Egyptian records is the first reference to Jerusalem.[26]The Greeks added the prefix hiero ("holy") and called it Hierosolyma. To the Arabs, Jerusalem is al-Quds ("The Holy"). "Zion" initially referred to part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole. Under King David, it was known as Ir David (the City of David).[27]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Jebusite_Jerusalem.jpg/220px-Jebusite_Jerusalem.jpg)
Ceramic evidence indicates the occupation of Ophel, within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the Copper Age, c. 4th millennium BCE,[28][5] with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early Bronze Age, c. 3000-2800 BCE.[28][29] The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called Roshlamem or Rosh-ramen[28] and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of the city.[30][31] Some archaeologists, including Kathleen Kenyon, believe Jerusalem as a city was founded by West Semitic people with organized settlements from around 2600 BCE. According to Jewish tradition the city was founded by Shem and Eber, ancestors of Abraham. In the biblical account, when first mentioned, Jerusalem is ruled by Melchizedek, an ally of Abraham (identified with Shem in legend). Later it is under control of the Jebusites until the 10th century BCE when David conquered it and made it the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah (c. 1000s BCE).[32][33][v] Recent excavations of a large stone structure are interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the biblical narrative.[34]
Temple periods
According to Hebrew scripture, King David reigned until 970 BCE. He was succeeded by his son Solomon,[35] who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish history as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.[36] For over 600 years, until the Babylonian conquest in 587 BCE, Jerusalem was the political capital of the Kingdom of Judah and a religious center of the Israelites.[37] This period is known in history as the First Temple Period.[38] Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the House of David and Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.[38]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/DavtowerS.jpg/230px-DavtowerS.jpg)
When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple.[38] In 538 BCE, after fifty years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple.[39][40] Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship. When Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized polis came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias the High Priest and his five sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital.[41]
Jewish-Roman wars
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As Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.[42][43][35] In 6 CE, the city, as well as much of the surrounding area, came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province[44] and Herod's descendants through Agrippa II remained client kings of Judea until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and the region began to be challenged with the first Jewish-Roman war, the Great Jewish Revolt, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. In 130 CE Hadrian Romanized the city, and renamed it Aelia Capitolina.[45] Jerusalem once again served as the capital of Judea during the three-year rebellion known as the Bar Kochba revolt, beginning in 132 CE. The Romans succeeded in recapturing the city in 135 CE and as a punitive measure Hadrian banned the Jews from entering it. Hadrian renamed the entire Iudaea Province Syria Palaestina after the biblical Philistines in an attempt to de-Judaize the country.[46][47] Enforcement of the ban on Jews entering Aelia Capitolina continued until the 4th century CE.
In the five centuries following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the city remained under Roman then Byzantine rule. During the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period: The city covered two square kilometers (0.8 sq mi.) and had a population of 200,000[48][46] From the days of Constantine until the 7th century, Jews were banned from Jerusalem.[49]
Roman-Persian wars
Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Roman to Persian rule and returned to Roman dominion once more. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century push into Byzantine, advancing through Syria, Sassanid Generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked the Byzantine-controlled city of Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh).[50]
In the Siege of Jerusalem (614), after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured and the Persian victory resulted in the territorial annexation of Jerusalem. After the Sassanid army entered Jerusalem, the holy "True Cross" was stolen and sent back to the Sassanian capital as a battle-captured holy relic. Persians massacred up to 90,000 Christians.[51] The conquered city and the Holy Cross would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered them in 629.[50]
Islamic rule
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dome_of_the_Rock%2C_viewed_through_Bab_al-Mathara.jpg/170px-Dome_of_the_Rock%2C_viewed_through_Bab_al-Mathara.jpg)
Jerusalem is considered Islam's third holiest city after Mecca and Medina. Among Muslims of an earlier era, it was referred to as al-Bayt al-Muqaddas; later, it became known as al-Quds al-Sharif. In 638, the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem.[52] With the Arab conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.[53] The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Monophysite Christian Patriarch Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.[54] Umar was led to the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, which he cleared of refuse in preparation for building a mosque. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679-688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodated 3,000 worshipers.[55] The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the late 7th century.[56] The 10th century historian al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur of Jerusalem's monumental churches.[55] Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control.[57]
Crusaders, Saladin and the Mamluks
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/1099jerusalem.jpg/170px-1099jerusalem.jpg)
In 1099, Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim inhabitants and the remnants of the Jewish inhabitants; the Crusaders later expelled the native Christian population and created the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000.[58] According to Benjamin of Tudela, Two hundred Jews were in the city in 1173. In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.[59] In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Kharezmian Tartars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.[60] The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Egyptians in 1247.From 1250-1517, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks, during this period of time many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side and the crusaders and the Mongols on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague.
Ottoman rule
In 1517, Jerusalem and environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.[59] Jerusalem enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent - including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important center, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo.[61] However, the Muslim Turks brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates; the use of the wheel for modes of transportation; stagecoach and carriage, the wheelbarrow and the cart; and the oil-lantern, among the first signs of modernization in the city.[62] In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.[62]
With the annexation of Jerusalem by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva.[63]
Turkish rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem. Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.[63] In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the country's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.[64] According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.[63] The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.[65]
In the 1860s, new neighborhoods began to go up outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860.[66]
British Mandate and 1948 War
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allenby_enters_Jerusalem_1917.jpg/220px-Allenby_enters_Jerusalem_1917.jpg)
In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city,[67] and in 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer the Mandate for Palestine.
From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000 with two thirds of Jews and one-third of Arabs (Muslims and Christians).[68] The situation between Arabs and Jews in Palestine was not quiet. At Jerusalem, in particular riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city[69][70] and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded.[71]
As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the United Nations."[72] The international regime was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents of Jerusalem were to decide the future regime of the city. However, this plan was not implemented, as the 1948 war erupted while the British withdrew from Palestine and Israel declared its independence.[73]
The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.[74] Residents of many Arab villages and neighborhoods west of the Old City left with the approach of the war, but thousands remained and were driven out or killed, as at Lifta or Deir Yassin.[75][76][77]
Division and controversial reunification
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Mandelbaum_Gate_Jerusalem.jpg/220px-Mandelbaum_Gate_Jerusalem.jpg)
The war ended with Jerusalem divided between Israel and Jordan (then Transjordan). The 1949 Armistice Agreements established a ceasefire line that cut through the center of the city and left Mount Scopus as an Israeli exclave. Barbed wire and concrete barriers separated east and west Jerusalem, and military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire. After the establishment of the State of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital. Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, in a move that was recognized only by Pakistan.[78][73]
Jordan assumed control of the holy places in the Old City. Contrary to the terms of the agreement, Israelis were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were desecrated, and only allowed very limited access to Christian holy sites.[79][80] During this period, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.[81]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/EastJerusalemMap.jpg/170px-EastJerusalemMap.jpg)
During the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured East Jerusalem and asserted sovereignty over the entire city. Jewish access to holy sites was restored, while the Temple Mount remained under the jurisdiction of an Islamic waqf. The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was vacated and razed[82] to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.[83] Since the war, Israel has expanded the city's boundaries and established a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods on vacant land east of the Green Line.
However, the takeover of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. Following the passing of Israel's Jerusalem Law, which declared Jerusalem, "complete and united", the capital of Israel,[84] the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that declared the law "a violation of international law" and requested all member states to withdraw all remaining embassies from the city.[85]
The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jewish settlers have taken over historic sites and built on land confiscated from Palestinians[86] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem,[87] while prominent Islamic leaders have insisted that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem.[88] Palestinians envision East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state,[89][90] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks.
Geography
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Yad_Vashem_view_of_Jerusalem_valley_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/220px-Yad_Vashem_view_of_Jerusalem_valley_by_David_Shankbone.jpg)
Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,500 ft).[91] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.[92] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.[93]The Tyropoeon valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the center of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus). Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.[92]
In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.[94]
Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.[95]
Jerusalem is 60 kilometers (37 mi)[96] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 kilometers (22 mi)[97] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.[98][99][100]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Jerusal%C3%A9n_desde_el_Monte_de_los_Olivos.jpg/800px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Jerusal%C3%A9n_desde_el_Monte_de_los_Olivos.jpg)
Climate
The city is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers, and cool, rainy winters. Light snow usually falls once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years on the average. January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 8 °C (46 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 23 °C (73 °F). Temperatures vary widely from day to night, and Jerusalem evenings are typically cool even in summer. The average annual precipitation is close to 590 millimetres (23 in) with rain occurring mostly between October and May.[101]
Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.[102] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[102][103]
Climate data for Jerusalem | |||||||||||||
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Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Source: The Weather Channel[101] |
Demographics
Template:Population of Jerusalem
In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—64% were Jewish, 32% Muslim, and 2% Christian.[3] At the end of 2005, the population density was Template:Pop density km2 to mi2.[2][104] According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Palestinian birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.[105]
In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.[2] Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Arab and Haredi Jewish communities. Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[2]
In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%) — similar to Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[2] This would seem to corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has declined over the past four decades. In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.[106] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city. Many people are moving to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and a more secular lifestyle.[107]
Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority proposed expanding city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[108]
Criticism of urban planning
Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Israel say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.[109] According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighborhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Palestinians in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.[110] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological park in the Palestinian neighborhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City),[111] and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).[112] The Israeli government has also expropriated Palestinian land for the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier.[110] Opponents view such urban planning moves as geared towards the Judaization of Jerusalem.[113][114][115]
Local government
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/KikarsafraS.jpg/220px-KikarsafraS.jpg)
The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints six deputies. The current mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.[116] In the 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat came out as the winner and is the mayor elect. Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent twenty-eight years — six consecutive terms — in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[116] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[117] The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The new municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993.[118] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital.
Political status
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Knesset_building_%28edited%29.jpg/220px-Knesset_building_%28edited%29.jpg)
On December 5, 1949, the State of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's capital[119] and since then all branches of the Israeli government — legislative, judicial, and executive — have resided there.[120] At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and thus only West Jerusalem was considered Israel's capital. Immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War, however, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, making it a de facto part of the Israeli capital. Israel enshrined the status of the "complete and united" Jerusalem — west and east — as its capital, in the 1980 Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel.[121]
The status of a "united Jerusalem" as Israel's "eternal capital"[122][119] has been a matter of immense controversy within the international community. Although some countries maintain consulates in Jerusalem, and two maintain embassies in Jerusalem suburbs (Costa Rica since 1982, and El Salvador), all embassies are located outside of the city proper, mostly in Tel Aviv.[123][124]
The non-binding United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, passed on August 20, 1980, declared that the Basic Law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith." Member states were advised to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. Most of the remaining countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Currently there are no embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in Mevaseret Zion, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, and four consulates in the city itself.[123] In 1995, the United States Congress had planned to move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem with the passage of the Jerusalem Embassy Act.[125] However, U.S. President George W. Bush has argued that Congressional resolutions regarding the status of Jerusalem are merely advisory. The Constitution reserves foreign relations as an executive power, and as such, the United States embassy is still in Tel Aviv.[126]
Israel's most prominent governmental institutions, including the Knesset,[127] the Supreme Court,[128] and the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, are located in Jerusalem. Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of the British Mandate, which included present-day Israel and Jordan.[129] From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city, despite the reality on the ground created in 1948 when Jordan annexed the Old City as part of its attempt to destroy the fledgling Israeli state. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On June 27, 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.[130] In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.[131][132] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian National Authority, which regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[14]
Religious significance
Jerusalem plays an important role in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[133] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Holy_sepulchre_Anastasis.jpg/220px-Holy_sepulchre_Anastasis.jpg)
Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE. Jerusalem was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple.[6] It is mentioned in the Bible 632 times. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is a Jewish holy site second only to the Holy of Holies on the Temple Mount itself.[134] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[135] and Arks within Jerusalem face the "Holy of Holies".[136] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[136][137]
Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its Old Testament history but also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth[138] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[139] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[140][141] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[142] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[143] The land currently occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.[143][144][145]
Jerusalem is considered the third-holiest city in Islam.[7] For approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kabaa in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[146] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[147][148] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque,[149] in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks intended to commemorate the event — al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, and the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the Foundation Stone, from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven.[150]
Culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Israel_-_Jerusalem_-_Shrine_of_the_Book.jpg/220px-Israel_-_Jerusalem_-_Shrine_of_the_Book.jpg)
Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.[151] The 20 acre museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-twentieth century in the Qumran caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[152] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden, and a scale-model of the Second Temple was recently moved from the Holyland Hotel to a new location on the museum grounds.[151] The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[153][154] The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.[155]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Jlmtheater.jpg/220px-Jlmtheater.jpg)
Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information,[156] with an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust and an art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished. Yad Vashem also commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honors the Righteous among the Nations.[157] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[158]
The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[159] has appeared around the world.[159] Other arts facilities include the International Convention Center (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city, where the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra plays, the Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Center (formerly Beit Ha'am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Center in Yemin Moshe,[160] and the Targ Music Center in Ein Kerem. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays and street theater, has been held annually since 1961; for the past 25 years, Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theater in the Talbiya neighborhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[161] The Khan, located in a caravansarai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theater.[162] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years, as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer, an annual week-long book fair, and outdoor music performances.[163] The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[164]
The Palestinian National Theatre, for many years the only Arab cultural center in East Jerusalem, engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to upgrade and rekindle interest in the arts at the national level.[165] The Ticho House, in downtown Jerusalem, houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[166] Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[167]
Economy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/HadarS.jpg/220px-HadarS.jpg)
Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[168] Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City,[2] but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance.[168]
Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[168] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labor force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older — lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[2] Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in recent years; between 2001 and 2007, the number of people below the poverty threshold increased by forty percent.[169] In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was NIS5,940 (US$1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv.[169]
During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[70] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure." By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[2] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%). Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[170] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[171] Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park is home to some of Israel's major corporations, among them Intel, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, and ECI Telecom. Expansion plans for the park envision one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, covering an area of 530,000 m² (130 acres).[172]
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[168]
Transportation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jerusalem-Central-bus-station.jpg/220px-Jerusalem-Central-bus-station.jpg)
The airport nearest to Jerusalem is Atarot Airport, which was used for domestic flights until its closure in 2001. Since then it has been under the control of the Israel Defense Forces due to disturbances in Ramallah and the West Bank. All air traffic from Atarot was rerouted to Ben Gurion International Airport, Israel's largest and busiest airport, which serves nine million passengers annually.[173]
Egged Bus Cooperative, the second-largest bus company in the world,[174] handles most of the local and intercity bus service out of the city's Central Bus Station on Jaffa Road near the western entrance to Jerusalem from highway 1. As of 2008, Egged buses, taxicabs and private cars are the only transportation options in Jerusalem. This is expected to change with the completion of the Jerusalem Light Rail, a new rail-based transit system currently under construction.[175] According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and will have 24 stops.[176] It is scheduled for completion in 2010.[177]
Another work in progress[176] is a new high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which is scheduled to be completed in 2011. Its terminus will be an underground station (80 m deep) serving the International Convention Center and the Central Bus Station,[178] and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station. Israel Railways operates train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh.[179][180]
Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the center of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35-kilometer (22-mile) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[181][182] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[181]
Education
Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English. Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.[183] The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[71] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[184] David Gross,[185] and Daniel Kahneman.[186] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.[187] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.[188] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital.
Al-Quds University was established in 1984[189] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples. It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[190] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a campus encompassing 190,000 square metres (47 acres).[189] Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[191] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,[192] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem.jpg/220px-Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem.jpg)
The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies program.[193] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot are based in the city, with the Mir yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[194] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[2] However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.[2] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[195]
Schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of Israel have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[196] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is currently building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighborhoods. Three schools, in the neighborhoods of Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison, will open in 2008.[197] In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a 5-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.[198] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools in Arab East Jerusalem.[197] Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[196]
Sports
The two most popular sports in Jerusalem, and Israel as a whole, are soccer and basketball.[199] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most popular teams in Israel. Fans include several former and current political figures who make a point of attending its games.[200] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Katamon F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion five times,[201] Hapoel has only won the Cup once. Also, Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the third division national league.
In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem is higher up on the scale, playing in the top division; though it has yet to win a championship, the club has won the State Cup three times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.[202] Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Kollek Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 21,000.[203]
See also
- International Day of Quds
- List of places in Jerusalem
- Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day)
Sister cities
New York City, United States (since 1993)[204][205]
Endnotes
i. | ^ The website for Jerusalem is available in three languages — Hebrew, English, and Arabic. |
ii. | ^ Jerusalem in other languages: Arabic Bibles use أورشليم Ûrshalîm (Ûrushalîm); official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, Ûrshalîm-al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names) |
iii. | ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are located there. The Palestinian Authority foresees East Jerusalem as the capital of its future state. The United Nations and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv (see CIA Factbook and Template:PDFlink) See Positions on Jerusalem for more information. |
iv. | ^ Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[206] but their legal statuses have not been reverted. |
v. | ^ a b Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.[207] |
vi. | ^ Sources disagree on the timing of the creation of the Pact of Umar (Omar). Whereas some say the Pact originated during Umar's lifetime but was later expanded,[208][209] others say the Pact was created after his death and retroactively attributed to him.[210] Further still, other historians believe the ideas in the Pact pre-date Islam and Umar entirely.[211] |
References
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- "...modern al Quds, Palestine's largest city..." (Erlanger, Steven. Jerusalem, Now, The New York Times, April 16, 2006.)
- "Al Quds is Palestine's largest city." ("Israel (country)", Microsoft Encarta, 2006, p. 3. Retrieved October 18, 2006.)
- "Since 1975 unified Al Quds has been the largest city in Palestine." ("Jerusalem", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006.)
- "Al Quds is the largest city in the State of Palestine. It has the largest population, the most Arabs and the most non-Jews of all Palestinian cities." (Klein, Menachem. Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City, New York University Press, March 1, 2001, p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-4754-X)
- "In 1967, Tel Aviv was the largest city in Israel. By 1987, more Jews lived in Jerusalem than the total population of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem had become Israel's premier city." (Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, September 19, 2000, p. 192. ISBN 0-520-22092-7)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Press Release: Jerusalem Day" (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006-05-24. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
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was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Local Authorities in Israel 2007, Publication #1295 - Municipality Profiles - Jerusalem" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
- ^ a b "Timeline for the History of Jerusalem". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
- ^ a b Since the 10th century BCE:[v]
- "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 0520220927
- "The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations." Jerusalem- the Holy City, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February 23, 2003. Accessed March 24, 2007.
- "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 0814650813
- "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 0028644107
- "For Jews the city has been the pre-eminent focus of their spiritual, cultural, and national life throughout three millennia." Yossi Feintuch, U.S. Policy on Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987, p. 1. ISBN 0313257000
- "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction - And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 9041188436
- "The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation." Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem, Anti-Defamation League, 2007. Accessed March 28, 2007.
- ^ a b Third-holiest city in Islam:
- Esposito, John L. (2002-11-02). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 0195157133.
The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Brown, Leon Carl (2000-09-15). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11. ISBN 0231120389.
The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
{{cite book}}
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requires|url=
(help) - Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14. ISBN 0814650813.
Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
{{cite book}}
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requires|url=
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ignored (help)
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- ^ Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips (ed.). A Will to Survive - Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade.
about 225 acres (0.91 km2)
- ^ Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1984). Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press. p. 14. ISBN 0312441878.
- ^ Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls
- ^ "Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?". Moment Magazine. Retrieved 2008-03-05.. According to Eric H. Cline’s tally in Jerusalem Besieged.
- ^ "United Nations Security Council Resolution 252". Jewish Virtual Library. 1968-05-21. Retrieved 2007-05-23.
- ^ Resolution 298 of 25 September 1971: "Recalling its resolutions [...] concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem, [...]"
- ^ a b Segal, Jerome M. (Fall 1997). "Negotiating Jerusalem". The University of Maryland School of Public Policy. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
- ^ Møller, Bjørn (2002). "A Cooperative Structure for Israeli-Palestinian Relations" (PDF). Working Paper No. 1. Centre for European Policy Studies. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
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ignored (help) - ^ http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE6DC103BF932A25756C0A963958260
- ^ Bethune, George Washington (1845). The Fruit of the Spirit. Mentz & Rovoudt. p. 93.
is the New Jerusalem, or "heritage of peace."
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Allen, Joseph Henry (1879). Hebrew Men and Times: From the Patriarchs to the Messiah. Roberts Brothers. p. 125.
name it Jerusalem, the "heritage of Peace."
- ^ Elon, Amos (1996-01-08). Jerusalem. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0006375316. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem—Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).
- ^ From the King James Version: "And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine: and he was the priest of the most high God." (Genesis 14:18)
- ^ "Jerusalem, the Old City". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
- ^ a b Landau, Yehezkel (1996). "Sharing Jerusalem: The Spiritual And Political Challenges". Service International De Documéntation Judéo-Chrétienne. 29 (2–3). Retrieved 2007-01-14.
I will share another meta-midrash...believers in the One Supreme God.
- ^ Sitchin, Zecharia, The Cosmic Code, Avon 1998
- ^ Wallace, Edwin Sherman (1977). Jerusalem the Holy. p. 16. ISBN 0405102984.
A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word
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ignored (help) - ^ Smith, George Adam (1907). Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70. Hodder and Stoughton. p. 251.
The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities
{{cite book}}
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(help) (see here) - ^ G.Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr.David E.Green) William B.Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990 p.348
- ^ http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/jer.html
- ^ a b c Freedman, David Noel (2000-01-01). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 694–695. ISBN 0802824005.
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- ^ Vaughn, Andrew G. (2003-08-01). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. pp. 32–33. ISBN 1589830660.
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- ^ Greenfeld, Howard (2005-03-29). A Promise Fulfilled: Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and the Creation of the State of Israel. Greenwillow. p. 32. ISBN 006051504X.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Erlanger, Steven (2005-08-05). "King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
- ^ a b Michael, E. (2005-02-28). The Complete Book of When and Where: In The Bible And Throughout History. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. pp. 20–1, 67. ISBN 0842355081.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (|author=
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{{cite web}}
: External link in
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- ^ Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 11
- ^ a b c Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah I (930–722)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-01-22. Cite error: The named reference "bu2-2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Sicker, Martin (2001-01-30). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Praeger Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 0275971406.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1991). From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Ktav Publishing House. pp. 60–79. ISBN 0-88125-371-5.
- ^ Har-el, Menashe. This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1993-02-26). The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant (Reprinted ed. ed.). San Francisco: HarperCollins. p. 92. ISBN 0060616296.
from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [Herod Archelaus] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories
{{cite book}}
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has extra text (help) - ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles. "Palestine: People and Places". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ a b Lehmann, Clayton Miles (2007-02-22). "Palestine: History". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E". In Hershel Shanks (ed.). Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development. Washington DC. p. 196.
{{cite book}}
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{{cite book}}
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- ^ a b Conybeare, Frederick C. (1910). The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD. English Historical Review 25. pp. 502–517.
- ^ Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614, Jewish Social Studies
- ^ Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 7
- ^ Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–71. ISBN 0521599849.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Penguin Books. Vol.1 pp.3–4.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (|no-pp=
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- ^ Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 15. ISBN 0814650813.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Zank, Michael. "Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
- ^ Hull, Michael D. (1999). "First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem". Military History. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b "Main Events in the History of Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. The CenturyOne Foundation. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
- ^ Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 25
- ^ Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989
- ^ a b The Jerusalem Mosaic, Hebrew University, 2002
- ^ a b c Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 37
- ^ Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp.304-306
- ^ Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas Martin Gilbert, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1978, p. 35
- ^ Eylon, Lili (1999). "Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period". Focus on Israel. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Fromkin, David (2001-09-01). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (2nd reprinted ed.). Owl Books e. pp. 312–3. ISBN 0805068848.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Chart of the population of Jerusalem
- ^ Tamari, Salim (1999). "Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City" (Reprint). Jerusalem Quarterly File (3). Retrieved 2007-02-02.
- ^ a b Eisenstadt, David (2002-08-26). "The British Mandate". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Retrieved 2007-02-10.
- ^ a b "History". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ "Considerations Affecting Certain of the Provisions of the General Assembly Resolution on the "Future Government of Palestine": The City of Jerusalem". The United Nations. 1948-01-22. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
- ^ a b Lapidoth, Ruth (1998-06-30). "Jerusalem: Legal and Political Background". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
- ^ Benny Morris, 1948 (2008), pp.218-219.
- ^ Krystall, Nathan. “The De-Arabization of West Jerusalem 1947-50”, Journal of Palestine Studies (27), Winter 1998
- ^ Morris Benny, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949, Revisited, Cambridge, 2004
- ^ Al-Khalidi, Walid (ed.), All that remains: the Palestinian villages occupied and depopulated by Israel in 1948, (Washington DC: 1992),"Lifta", pp. 300-303
- ^ "Legal Status in Palestine". Birzeit University Institute of Law. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
- ^ Martin Gilbert, "Jerusalem: A Tale of One City", The New Republic, Nov. 14, 1994
- ^ Mitchell Bard. "Myths & Facts Online: Jerusalem". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ Greg Noakes (September/October 1994). "Dispute Over Jerusalem Holy Places Disrupts Arab Camp". Washington report on Middle East affairs. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Rashid Khalidi, "The Future of Arab Jerusalem" British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2 (1992), pp. 133-143
- ^ "Jerusalem's Holy Places and the Peace Process". The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 1988. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "Basic Law- Jerusalem- Capital of Israel". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1980-07-30. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "Resolution 478 (1980)" (PDF). United Nations. 1980. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
- ^ "Jewish Inroads in Muslim Quarter: Settlers' Project to Alter Skyline of Jerusalem's Old City" The Washington Post Foreign Service, February 11, 2007; Page A01
- ^ James Hider."Settlers dig tunnels around Jerusalem"; The Times Online, March 1, 2008
- ^ "'Western Wall was never part of temple'". Jerusalem Post. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "No Mid-East advance at UN summit". BBC. 2000-09-07. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
- ^ Khaled Abu Toameh (2007-01-11). "Abbas: Aim guns against occupation". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
- ^ Cabrera, Enrique (1998-12-31). Drought Management Planning in Water Supply Systems. Springer. p. 304. ISBN 0792352947.
The Old City of Jerusalem (760 m) in the central hills
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b Bergsohn, Sam (2006-05-15). "Geography". Cornell University. Retrieved 2007-02-09.
- ^ Walvoord, John (1996-01-07). "The Metaphorical View". Four Views on Hell. Zondervan. p. 58. ISBN 0310212685.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Jerusalem geography". Jewish Agency. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/3137039, "The Water Supply of Jerusalem, Ancient and Modern", E. W. G. Masterman, The Biblical World, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb 1902), pp. 87-112, University of Chicago Press
- ^ Rosen-Zvi, Issachar (2004). Taking Space Seriously: Law, Space and Society in Contemporary Israel. Ashgate Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 0754623513.
Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (help) - ^ Federman, Josef (2004-08-18). "Debate flares anew over Dead Sea Scrolls". AP via MSNBC. Retrieved 2007-02-09.
- ^ "Introduction". The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Expedition. Bar Ilan University. Retrieved 2007-04-24. (Image located here)
- ^ "Map of Israel". Eye On Israel. Retrieved 2007-04-25. (See map 9 for Jerusalem)
- ^ ""One more Obstacle to Peace" – A new Israeli Neighborhood on the lands of Jerusalem city". The Applied Research Institute -- Jerusalem. 2007-03-10. Retrieved 2007-04-24. (Image located here)
- ^ a b "Monthly Averages for Jerusalem, Israel". The Weather Channel. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
- ^ a b Ma'oz, Moshe (2000). Jerusalem: Points of Friction-And Beyond. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 44–6. ISBN 9041188436.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Rory Kess (September 16, 2007). "Worst ozone pollution in Beit Shemesh, Gush Etzion". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ "Population and Density per km² in Localities Numbering Above 5,000 Residents on 31 XII 2005" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
- ^ "Arab population growth outpaces Jews in Jerusalem" Reuters, September 26, 2000
- ^ Sel, Neta (2006-05-23). "Jerusalem: More tourists, fewer Jews". YNet. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ Hockstader, Lee (1998-08-16). "Jewish Drop In Jerusalem Worries Israel". The Washington Post via Cornell University. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ Laub, Karin (2006-12-02). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Associated Press via The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ Allison Hodgkins, "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88)
- ^ a b "Movement and Access Restrictions in the West Bank: Uncertainty and Inefficiency"; World Bank Technical Team, May 9, 2007
- ^ Meron Rapoport.Land lords; Haaretz, January 20, 2005
- ^ Esther Zandberg."The architectural conspiracy of silence"; Haaretz, Februrary 24, 2007
- ^ Allison Hodgkins. "The Judaization of Jerusalem - Israeli Policies Since 1967"; PASSIA publication No. 96, December 1996, (English, Pp. 88)
- ^ Meron Rapaport. "Group 'Judaizing' East Jerusalem accused of withholding donation sources"; Haaretz, November 22, 2007
- ^ Rothchild, Alice. "The Judaization of East Jerusalem"; CommonDreams, November 26, 2007
- ^ a b Cidor, Peggy (2007-03-15). "Corridors of Power: A tale of two councils". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
- ^ Coker, Margaret (2006-11-11). "Jerusalem Becomes A Battleground Over Gay Rights Vs. Religious Beliefs". Cox Newspapers. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
- ^ "Safra Square - City Hall". The Municipality of Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- ^ a b Ben-Gurion, David (1949-12-05). "Statements of the Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Regarding Moving the Capital of Israel to Jerusalem". The Knesset. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
- ^ "Jerusalem and Berlin Embassy Relocation Act of 1998". The Library of Congress. 1998-06-25. Retrieved 2007-02-12.
- ^ "Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1980-07-30. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
- ^ "The Status of Jerusalem". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1999-03-14. Retrieved 2007-02-12.
- ^ a b "Embassies and Consulates in Israel". Israel Science and Technology Homepage. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
- ^ Kellerman, Aharon (1993). Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century. State University of New York Press. p. 140. ISBN 0791412954.
[Tel Aviv] also contains most embassies, given the nonrecognition by many countries of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ^ "Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. 1995-11-08. Retrieved 2007-02-15.
- ^ "Statement on FY 2003 Foreign Relations Authorization Act". Retrieved 2007-05-23.
- ^ "English gateway to the Knesset website". Retrieved 2007-05-18.
- ^ "The State of Israel: The Judicial Authority". Retrieved 2007-05-18.
- ^ Jerusalem as administrative capital of the British Mandate:
- Orfali, Jacob G. (1995). Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same. Ronin Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0914171755.
In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - Oren-Nordheim, Michael (2001). Jerusalem and Its Environs: Quarters, Neighborhoods, Villages, 1800–1948. Wayne State University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0814329098.
The three decades of British rule in Palestine (1917/18–1948) were a highly significant phase in the development, with indelible effects on the urban planning and development of the capital– Jerusalem.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) Ruth Kark is a professor in the Department of Geography at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. - Dumper, Michael (1996-04-15). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0231106408.
...the city that was to become the administrative capital of Mandate Palestine...
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help)
- Orfali, Jacob G. (1995). Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same. Ronin Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0914171755.
- ^ Dore Gold. "Jerusalem in International Diplomacy". Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "The New Orient House: A History of Palestinian Hospitality". jerusalemites.org. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ Klein, Menachem (2001). "The PLO and the Palestinian Identity of East Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City. New York University Press. p. 189. ISBN 081474754X.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (help) - ^ Guinn, David E. (2006-10-02). Protecting Jerusalem's Holy Sites: A Strategy for Negotiating a Sacred Peace (1st ed. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 142. ISBN 0521866626.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help);|edition=
has extra text (help) - ^ "What is the Western Wall?". The Kotel. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
- ^ Goldberg, Monique Susskind. "Synagogues". Ask the Rabbi. Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ a b Segal, Benjamin J. (1987). Returning: The Land of Israel as Focus in Jewish History. Jerusalem, Israel: Department of Education and Culture of the World Zionist Organization. p. 124. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch (94:1) — "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."
- ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke 2:22)
- ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark 11:15)
- ^ Boas, Adrian J. (2001-10-12). "Physical Remains of Crusader Jerusalem". Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 0415230004.
The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Endo, Shusaku (1999). Richard A. Schuchert (ed.). A Life of Jesus. Paulist Press. p. 116. ISBN 0809123193.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John 19:20)
- ^ a b Stump, Keith W. (1993). "Where Was Golgotha?". Worldwide Church of God. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- ^ Ray, Stephen K. (2002). St. John's Gospel: A Bible Study Guide and Commentary for Individuals and Groups. p. 340. ISBN 0898708214.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (help) - ^ O'Reilly, Sean (2000-11-30). Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit (1st ed. ed.). Travelers' Tales. p. 14. ISBN 1885211562.
The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (2005-10-30). "The Final Settlement Issues: Asymmetric Values & Asymmetric Warfare". The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere. Praeger Security International. p. 62. ISBN 0275987582.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Peters, Francis E. (2003-10-20). "Muhammad the Prophet of God". The Monotheists: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. pp. 95–6. ISBN 0691114609.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ "Sahih Bukhari". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Retrieved 2007-03-11. (from an English translation of Sahih Bukhari, Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608)
- ^ From Abdullah Yusuf Ali's English translation of the Qur'an: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (17:1)
- ^ "The Early Arab Period - 638-1099". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b "About the Museum". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
- ^ "Shrine of the Book". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
- ^ "The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
- ^ "The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum: About the Museum: The Permanent Exhibition". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
- ^ "List of Palestinian Cultural & Archeological Sites". Jerusalem Media & Communication Centre. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
- ^ "About Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
- ^ "The Museum". Museum On The Seam. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ a b "History". Jerusalem Orchestra. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
- ^ "Jerusalem Music Center". Retrieved 2007-05-18.
- ^ "The Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts". Jerusalem Theater. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
- ^ "About Us". The Khan Theatre. 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
- ^ "Summer Nights Festival 2008". Jerusalem Foundation. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "About The Festival". Jerusalem Film Festival. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ "History". Palestinian National Theatre. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
- ^ "Ticho House". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
- ^ "About Alhoash". Palestinian ART Court. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ a b c d Dumper, Michael (1996-04-15). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press. pp. 207–10. ISBN 0231106408.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ a b "Study shows poverty level in Jerusalem double that of other Israeli cities". Israel Insider. 2007-01-11. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- ^ "Employed Persons, by Industry, District and Sub-District of Residence, 2005" (PDF). Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
- ^ Gil Zohar (June 28, 2007). "Bet your bottom dollar?". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
- ^ "Har Hotzvim Industrial Park". Har Hotzvim Industrial Park. Retrieved 2007-03-13.
- ^ Smith, Patrick (2006-06-09). "Ask the Pilot". Salon. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
- ^ Solomon, Shoshanna (2001-11-01). "Facets of the Israeli Economy– Transportation". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
- ^ "Solution". Jerusalem Mass Transit System Project. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
- ^ a b Afra, Orit (2007-02-08). "Panacea or pain?". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
- ^ "Jerusalem Light Rail Project". Railway Technology. Retrieved 2008-11-22.
- ^ "Life in Jerusalem– Transportation". Rothberg International Station– Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
- ^ "Jerusalem - Malha". Israel Railways. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
- ^ "Passenger Lines Map". Israel Railways. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
- ^ a b Burstein, Nathan (2006-01-19). "Running rings around us". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
- ^ Gil Zohar (May 31, 2007). "Their way or the highway?". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
- ^ http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/hybrid.asp?typeCode=243&pubCode=1
- ^ Hershko, Avram. "Avram Hershko". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ Gross, David. "David J. Gross". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ Kahneman, Daniel. "Daniel Kahneman". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ "About the Library: Main Collections". Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
- ^ "About the Library: History and Aims". Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
- ^ a b "Science & Technology". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-03-19.
- ^ "Urgent Appeal". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
- ^ Official site of the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance: (Hebrew), (English)
- ^ Official site of Bezalel Academy of Art and Design: (Hebrew), (English)
- ^ "About JCT". Jerusalem College of Technology. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
- ^ Wohlgelernter, Elli (2000-12-28). "The village of Mir, where Torah once flowed". Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
- ^ Jonathan Lis (May 4, 2005). "The best medicine for Jerusalem".
- ^ a b "Summary". Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools. Human Rights Watch. 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Lis, Jonathan (2008-04-21). "Mayor to raise funds for E. J'lem Arabs to block Hamas". Haaretz. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
- ^ Or Kashti (March 18, 2007). "8,000 new classrooms to be built in Arab, ultra-Orthodox schools".
- ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004-06-30). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. p. 141. ISBN 0313320918.
The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are soccer (Israeli football) and basketball.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Griver, Simon (1997). "Betar Jerusalem: A Local Sports Legend Exports Talent to Europe's Top Leagues". Israel Magazine via the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
{{cite news}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Template:He icon "Home". Beitar Jerusalem F.C. Retrieved 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located on the left side.)
- ^ Template:He icon "Home". Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.)
- ^ Eldar, Yishai (2001-12-01). "Jerusalem: Architecture Since 1948". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
- ^ "Online Directory: Israel, Middle East". Sister Cities International. Retrieved 2007-04-05.
- ^ "New York City Global Partners". NYC.gov. Retrieved 2008-02-17.
- ^ Laub, Karin (2006-12-02). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Associated Press via The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- ^ Pellegrino, Charles R. (1995-12-01). Return to Sodom & Gomorrah (Second revised ed.). Harper Paperbacks. p. 271. ISBN 0380726335.
[see footnote]
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader (2000). The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 315–1791 (Revised ed. ed.). Hebrew Union College Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 087820217X. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Jonsson, David J. (2005-02-19). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 256. ISBN 1597810398.
During the reign of Umar, the Pact of Umar was established.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Goddard, Hugh (2001-04-25). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books. p. 46. ISBN 1566633400.
Although the documents are attributed to `Umar, in all probability they actually come from the second Islamic century... The covenant was drawn up in the schools of law, and came to be ascribed, like so much else, to `Umar I
- ^ Goddard, Hugh (2001-04-25). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books. p. 47. ISBN 1566633400.
It has recently been suggested that many of the detailed regulations concerning what the ahl al-dhimma were and were not permitted to do come from an earlier historical precedent, namely the regulations which existed in the Sassanian Persian Empire with reference to its religious minorities in Iraq.
Other resources
- Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem Harvard University Press
- Cline, Eric (2004) Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-472-11313-5.
- Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem! Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4
- Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7
- Köchler, Hans (1981) The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: Braumüller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9
- The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006
- Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1
External links
- Official website of Jerusalem
- Jerusalemp3, offers free virtual tours in mp3 format from the Jerusalem Municipality
- City of David
- Jerusalem.com
- Template:Wikitravel
Government
- Template:PDFlink, United Nations document related to the recent dispute over Jerusalem
- Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, Government of Israel, the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel
Culture
- Israel Museum, one of Jerusalem's premier art museums
- Yad Vashem, Israeli memorial to victims of The Holocaust
- Jerusalemite Jerusalemite: The Jerusalem Culture Guide
Education
- Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem's foremost institution of higher learning
- al-Quds University, "the only Arab university in Jerusalem"
Maps
- Modern-day map of Jerusalem, from the Jerusalem Municipality
- Ancient Maps of Jerusalem, from the Jewish National Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Modern maps, post-1947 from PASSIA
31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E
- Neighbourhoods of Jerusalem
- Jerusalem
- Cities in Israel
- Cities in the West Bank
- Old Yishuv
- Jerusalem District
- Jerusalem Governorate
- Orthodox Jewish communities
- Historic Jewish communities
- Holy cities
- Hebrew Bible cities
- Torah cities
- Christian history
- Islamic history
- Capitals in Asia
- Land of Israel
- Disputed territories
- Crusades
- Titular Sees of the Coptic Orthodox Church
- Amarna letters locations
- Ancient Pilgrim Centres