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2005 Kashmir earthquake

Coordinates: 34°27′N 73°39′E / 34.45°N 73.65°E / 34.45; 73.65
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"Kashmir earthquake" redirects here. For the 1555 earthquake, see 1555 Kashmir earthquake. For the 1885 earthquake, see 1885 Kashmir earthquake. For the 2019 earthquake, see 2019 Kashmir earthquake.

2005 Kashmir earthquake
Clockwise from top left:
  • Destroyed building, Muzaffarabad
  • Pakistani soldiers unload relief supplies from a U.S. Navy helicopter, Balakot
  • U.S. Navy Hospitalman holds an injured three-year-old boy, Shinkiari
  • Destroyed building, Nardjan
  • U.S. Army helicopter takes off after dropping off emergency aid at Rawalakot Airport, Rawalakot
  • A tent village built to house displaced earthquake survivors, Shinkiari
2005 Kashmir earthquake is located in Pakistan
Kabul
Kabul
Islamabad
Islamabad
Delhi
Delhi
Lahore
Lahore
2005 Kashmir earthquake
UTC time2005-10-08 03:50:40
ISC event7703077
USGS-ANSSComCat
Local date8 October 2005
Local time08:50:39 PKT
Duration60 seconds
Magnitude7.6 Mw[1]
Depth15 km (9.3 mi)[1]
Epicenter34°27′N 73°39′E / 34.45°N 73.65°E / 34.45; 73.65[1]
TypeOblique-slip
Areas affectedPakistan, India, Afghanistan
Max. intensityMMI XI (Extreme)[2]
LandslidesYes[3]
Aftershocks5.9 Mw  8 Oct at 03:57[4]
5.8 Mw  8 Oct at 03:58[5]
6.4 Mw  8 Oct at 10:46[6]
Casualties86,000–87,351 dead[7]
69,000–75,266 injured[7]
2.8 million displaced[7]

An earthquake occurred at 08:50:39 Pakistan Standard Time on 8 October 2005 in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, a territory under Pakistan. Its epicenter was 19 km northeast of the city of Muzaffarabad, and 90 km north north-east of Islamabad, the capital city of Pakistan, and also affected nearby Balakot in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It registered a moment magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The earthquake was also felt in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, India and the Xinjiang region. The severity of the damage caused by the earthquake is attributed to severe upthrust. Although not the largest earthquake to hit this region in terms of magnitude it is considered the deadliest,[8] surpassing the 1935 Quetta earthquake.[9] Sources indicate that the official death toll in this quake in Pakistan was between 73,276[10] and 87,350,[11] with some estimates being as high as over 100,000 dead.[10] In India, 1,360 people were killed, while 6,266 people were injured.[12] Three and a half million people were left without shelter, and approximately 138,000 people were injured in the quake.[13]

Earthquake

[edit]
Map depicting regional tectonic plates

Kashmir is a region in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, bordered by China to the north and east, India to the south, Pakistan to the west, and Afghanistan to the northwest.[14] The region where the earthquake occurred crosses the political borders of Pakistan and India. This area has been prone to earthquakes for centuries, with the earliest recorded quake occurring in 1255 in Kathmandu.[8] The Kashmir valley is completely surrounded by mountains, with the valley floor being 1850 meters above sea level, but the encircling mountains reach heights of 3000–4000 meters. Its unique geography makes it particularly prone to natural disasters including floods, windstorms, avalanches and landslides, fires and droughts. It is, however, particularly prone to earthquakes as it lies on top of active geological faults where two tectonic plates, the large Eurasian and small Indian tectonic plates collide. This collision forces the Indian plate under the Eurasian plate, causing movement of the earth's crust.[15] The geological activity born out of this collision, also responsible for the birth of the Himalayan mountain range, is the cause of unstable seismicity in the region. leading to earthquakes. This region continues to experience frequent earth-crust movement and thirty-two seismic events were recorded in this area between January to June 2023.[16] Several studies have been undertaken to determine the postseismic deformation following the earthquake.[17][15] New lakes were formed as a result of the earthquake.[18]

Aftershocks

[edit]

There were many secondary earthquakes in the region, mainly to the northwest of the original epicenter. A series of strong aftershocks occurred near Muzaffarabad.[19] As of 27 October 2005[20] There had been more than 978 aftershocks with a magnitude of 4.0 and above that continued to occur daily. Since then, measurements from satellites have shown that mountain parts directly above the epicenter have risen by a few meters, giving ample proof that the Himalayas are still being formed and growing and that this earthquake was a consequence of that.[21] By the end of 2005, a total of 1,778 aftershocks were recorded.[22]

Damage and casualties

[edit]

Pakistan

[edit]
Muzaffarabad after the earthquake

Most of the devastation hit Azad Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of Northern Pakistan. Muzaffarabad, the state capital of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, was hardest hit in terms of casualties and destruction.

Various factors combined to make this earthquake particularly deadly. Amongst other factors, it was characterized by massive landslides and rockfalls, affecting transport, with closure of essential roads and highways.[11] The time of day when the quake occurred (8:50am) also contributed to the loss of life and devastation. As Saturday is a normal school day in the region, most students were at school when the earthquake struck. In total, approximately 19 000 of those who died in Pakistan, were school children who were inside when their schools collapsed.[13] Many people were also trapped in their homes, and because it was the month of Ramadan, most people were taking a nap after their pre-dawn meal and did not have time to escape. Women made up a larger number of casualties than men, as many were inside, cleaning after the morning meal.[23]

Hospitals, schools, and rescue services, including police and armed forces, were paralysed. There was virtually no infrastructure, and communication was badly affected. Local building construction practices, poor workmanship, economic constraints and design flaws[24] meant that almost 780 000 buildings were destroyed or damaged beyond repair.

The Pakistani government's official death toll as of November 2005 stood at 87,350, although it is estimated that the death toll could have reached over 100,000. Approximately 138,000 people were injured, and over 3.5 million were rendered homeless. The earthquake affected more than 500,000 families, and cold weather increased the death toll for those who survived the earthquake, but were displaced and homeless.[25]

India

[edit]

At least 1,350 people were killed and 6,266 injured in Jammu and Kashmir, India.[26][27][28] In Uri there were over 150 deaths.[29] The tremors were reportedly felt as far away as Delhi and Punjab.

Afghanistan

[edit]

Four deaths were reported in Afghanistan, including a young girl who died in Jalalabad after a wall collapsed on her. The quake was felt in Kabul, but the effects were minimal there.[30]

Geographical changes

[edit]

The earthquake resulted in a surface rupture, the first time this kind of phenomenon was reported, based on available data from other past events. This rupture was reported to have extended over seventy-five kilometres.[15] The earthquake triggered several thousand landslides, mainly rock falls, debris falls, and also a debris avalanche.[31]There were two significant landslides, one in Chella Bandi, Muzaffarabad, and the Hattian landslide in the Pir Panjal Range. The Hattian landslide is considered to be the largest landslide caused by the earthquake and is also attributed with the formation of a new lake.[32][33] Over 140 aftershocks were recorded, many of at least 4.0 on the Richter scale, and 21 registering at over 5.0 on the Richter scale. [34] Following the quake, several studies were undertaken to determine the resultant postseismic deformation.[15][35] The course of the Neelum River was changed by the landslides and the surface rupture, and a new waterfall also formed at the edges of Kunhar River valley. It was observed that new co-seismic escarpments formed where sharp topographic changes had existed.[36] There are conflicting studies about the occurrence of soil liquefaction. This phenomenon, and sand-blows were reported in the northwest of Kashmir Valley.[37][38] However, one study did not observe any liquefaction.[39]

Physical changes

[edit]

It is estimated that over 780,000 buildings were destroyed or damaged beyond repair.[40] In Balakot, about 90% of the buildings in the city were reduced to rubble, and in Muzaffarabad, almost every building was either destroyed or damaged.[41][42] In Uri, over 50% of the buildings were reportedly damaged after a short circuit resulted in a fire.[43] Around 574 health facilities were reported to have been partially damaged or destroyed.[44] In Pakistan, around 320 health institutions were destroyed and 44 were partially damaged.[45] The resulting landslides from the earthquake affected transport, with closure of essential roads and highways.[40] Sections of a road and pavement in a major route in Muzaffarabad collapsed.[32] Many bridges were damaged, with the largest damaged bridge in Balakot. Several other bridges in the Jhelum Valley (Kashmir) were also damaged. The bridges in Muzaffarabad were not damaged except for a pedestrian suspension bridge north of the city which collapsed.[46] 3,994 water supply systems were destroyed.[47] In Muzaffarabad and Balakot, the electricity network was destroyed. In Balakot, some pylons were tilted.[46] The GSM network withstood the impact of the earthquake better. In both towns, the Mobilink operator was functional, but was saturated and experienced intermittent signal, and was therefore unreliable. In contrast, landline telephone infrastructure was completely destroyed.[48] It was estimated that about 40% of telecommunication exchanges, and 15% of telephone lines in Azad Jammu and Kashmir were disrupted. In the North-West Frontier Province, it was estimated that 30% of exchanges and 8% of lines were disrupted.[49]

Local response

[edit]

Immediately after the earthquake struck on October 8, 2005, local residents and organizations sprang into action to provide emergency aid and support to those in need. The government and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) played a crucial role in coordinating relief efforts, distributing food, water, and medical supplies to the affected areas.[16] The extent of the damage to the infrastructure meant that prompt action was required on the ground. Many individuals and communities provided assistance spontaneously.[23] People opened their homes to those who had lost theirs, and volunteers worked tirelessly to clear debris and provide assistance to the injured. Despite the diverse approaches taken by different NGOs, this variation sometimes led to inefficiencies in resource allocation and duplication of efforts.[50]

Role of women in disaster relief

[edit]

For instance, while some organizations focused on immediate needs like food and medical supplies, others aimed for longer-term recovery solutions, which created challenges in coordinating effective responses across the board. Women, despite facing significant cultural and logistical challenges, emerged as critical first responders, providing food, building temporary shelters, and offering emotional support.[25] Despite the challenges posed by the scale of the disaster, the local response demonstrated the strength of community bonds and the importance of grassroots efforts in disaster management.[51]

Medical Rehabilitation Efforts

[edit]

The collective action of local residents, government agencies, and NGOs was instrumental in providing immediate relief and setting the stage for long-term recovery and reconstruction. Medical rehabilitation services swiftly intervened, providing assistive devices and customized prosthetics to facilitate the early recovery of injured individuals' functional abilities and psychological states.[49] As a crucial component of this relief effort, MST Military Hospital, equipped with 12 beds and a team of experienced specialists, provided urgent medical and surgical care for post-disaster casualties. This rapid response accelerated the rehabilitation process, ensuring that victims received timely and professional medical support even under extreme conditions.[52]

Collaboration and sustainability concerns

[edit]

The local response was also marked by the collaboration between various NGOs and international aid organizations, which helped to amplify the impact of relief efforts. Nonetheless, the reliance on international aid raised questions about the sustainability of recovery efforts. Over-dependence on external resources could potentially undermine the local capacity for self-reliance and long-term resilience.

Support from military and government agencies

[edit]

In the initial phases of response, the Pakistan Medical corps, Corps of Engineers, Army Aviation and a large number of infantry units played important roles. Helicopters conducted aerial reconnaissance and delivered essential supplies to remote areas, while infantry units engaged in search and rescue operations, providing critical first aid and establishing temporary shelters. Their coordinated efforts not only facilitated immediate relief but also helped restore order and instill confidence among the affected population during the crisis.[53] In early 2006, the Government of Pakistan organized a donors' conference to raise money for the reconstruction and development of the area. A large portion of these funds was provided by international NGOs for post-earthquake reconstruction and development by a reconstruction agency called the Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA).

International response

[edit]

Well over US$5.4 billion (400 billion Pakistani rupees)[54] in aid arrived from all around the world. US Marine and Army helicopters stationed in neigbouring Afghanistan quickly flew aid into the devastated region along with five CH-47 Chinook helicopters from the Royal Air Force that were deployed from the United Kingdom. Five crossing points were opened on the Line of Control (LOC), between India and Pakistan, to facilitate the flow of humanitarian and medical aid to the affected region, and aid teams from different parts of Pakistan and around the world came to the region to assist in relief efforts.[55][56][57]

Response from major international organisations

[edit]

The United Nations employed the cluster approach in its response, with ten key clusters led by specialized agencies addressing critical areas of need. The United Nations Development Programme coordinated responses, rebuilt shelters, schools, and health facilities, and implemented a cash-for-work program. The United Nations Population Fund deployed nine mobile medical units, provided reproductive health services for one million people, and focused on pregnant women and children. The United Nations Children's Fund distributed school kits for 140,000 children, established 70 child-friendly spaces, and reopened 487 schools. The World Food Programme provided emergency food, including high-energy biscuits, and launched a food-for-work initiative. The World Health Organisation delivered medical equipment, health kits, and set up a disease early warning system. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees managed 37 camps, distributing tents, blankets, and supplies. The International Organization for Migration helped 14,000 families return home, providing transport and food. The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs initiated rescue operations, launched a $550 million fundraising appeal, and conducted environmental assessments. The United Nations Humanitarian Air Service delivered 28,000 tons of relief supplies to remote areas using helicopters.[58]

The International Rescue Committee (IRC) responded swiftly, providing emergency food, medical care, and shelter. They treated thousands of survivors in makeshift clinics, ensured access to clean water and sanitation, and established child-friendly spaces to aid psychological recovery. Before winter, the IRC distributed warm clothing and bedding and assisted in rebuilding homes and infrastructure, supporting long-term recovery efforts.[59]

The World Bank, with the Asian Development Bank, estimated reconstruction costs at $3.5 billion, providing financial and technical support for infrastructure, particularly in housing, education, and health, while promoting transparency and disaster risk reduction.[60] The International Monetary Fund helped stabilize Pakistan’s economy by offering financial aid to manage fiscal pressures from emergency relief and reconstruction, ensuring economic stability and the efficient management of international aid.[61]

Aid from individual countries

[edit]

Countries worldwide responded quickly with financial and logistical aid. For instance, Saudi Arabia contributed a $133 million aid package, including emergency supplies and medical teams, and institutionalized its support through SPAPEV.[62] China provided $6.2 million in aid, deployed a 49-member rescue team with sniffer dogs, and sent US$1 million in cash and the first batch of rescue materials for immediate relief.[63]Turkey delivered $150 million in aid, sent 30 aircraft with medical teams and relief goods, and built tent cities for 70,000 people.[64][65] Cuba dispatched 2,260 health professionals, set up 32 field hospitals, supplied 234.5 tons of medicines, and offered 1,000 free medical scholarships to Pakistani students from rural areas.[66][67]

NGO and Humanitarian Aid contributions

[edit]

Numerous NGOs, including Médecins Sans Frontières, Save the Children, and Oxfam, focused on providing medical care, clean drinking water, and temporary housing for displaced populations. NGOs were crucial in addressing the psychological and social needs of affected communities, especially for vulnerable groups like children and the elderly.[68] The Gift of the Givers Foundation, for example, concentrated on delivering food, water, and medical supplies to remote areas that were difficult to access.[13]

Challenges in response and reconstruction

[edit]

Despite substantial aid, logistical difficulties hindered efficient relief efforts. Limited infrastructure, combined with harsh weather and mountainous terrain, delayed the transport of supplies to remote areas. Additionally, coordination challenges among different organizations sometimes led to resource duplication and gaps in critical areas.[69]

Health consequences

[edit]

The 100,000 and more injured suffered from fractures, crush injuries and lacerations. Healthcare facilities were inundated, and makeshift field hospitals were quickly established; However, the lack of adequate facilities, supplies and skilled personnel significantly hampered medical response efforts.[70] Temporary shelters and overcrowded camps coupled with inadequate access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities, led to outbreaks of respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases and measles.[71] Respiratory infections were notably prevalent, exacerbated by the cold weather in the region, and poor insulation in camps.[72]

The earthquake caused significant psychological trauma for survivors who endured the sudden loss of family members, homes and livelihoods. This experience triggered acute stress reactions in many individuals, including anxiety, depression and later, post-traumatic stress disorder.[73] The lack of mental health infrastructure in the affected areas compounded these problems as there were few resources available for trauma counselling or psychological support. Mental health clinics set up by non-governmental organisations provided some relief, but the support was often short lived to limited funding and resources.[74] Cultural stigma surrounding mental health also discouraged individuals from seeking help, further amplifying the psychological burden of the earthquake.[75]

In terms of non-communicable diseases, increased rates of hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular disease were observed as access to routine health care services became severely disrupted. This disruption meant that individuals with chronic illnesses struggled to obtain necessary medications and medical care, leading to poor disease management and subsequent health complications.[76] Long term mental health impact was also significant. Research conducted years after the earthquake found that many survivors were still experiencing symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety disorders. These persistent psychological effects highlight the limited access to mental health resources in the affected regions and the cultural barriers preventing individuals from seeking mental health support.[77]

Disparities impacting health consequences

[edit]

Geographic disparities

[edit]

The severity of injuries varied across regions, with mountainous and remote areas particularly affected. The geographical isolation of these regions made it challenging for rescue teams to provide timely assistance, leading to higher mortality rates in these hard-to-reach areas. Their rugged terrain and damaged infrastructure delayed the transport of critically injured patients to hospitals, increasing fatalities among the injured[78]

Socio-economic disparities

[edit]

Lower income populations faced greater hardship due to inadequate housing which was more vulnerable to collapse during the earthquake. These individuals also lacked financial means to rebuild their homes and lives post disaster, prolonging their exposure to hazardous living conditions and increasing their risk of health complications.[79]

Gender and age disparities

[edit]

Women, especially those who were pregnant or had caregiving responsibilities faced additional health challenges due to their limited mobility and high risk of injury during the earthquake. In the aftermath, women often struggled with mental health issues including depression and anxiety as they assumed the burden of caring for the injured family members while dealing with their own trauma and additional occurrence of domestic violence.[80] Children were at a heightened risk of developing psychological issues, including PTSD due to the traumatic experience of witnessing death and destruction.[81]

Lessons Learned

[edit]

From disaster response to disaster risk reduction planning an management

[edit]

The devastating socio-economic impacts and health consequences of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake were exacerbated by the absence of strategic Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) planning and management.[82] The poor quality of public infrastructure meant that schools, hospitals and roads were not built to withstand seismic hazards. Houses, notably those of the poorest and most vulnerable populations, were prone to their roofs collapsing.[83]

The 2005 earthquake led to the adoption of legal, policy and institutional frameworks for disaster risk management, including the establishment of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), the elaboration of a national disaster risk reduction policy,[84] and the observation of a national resilience day on the 8th October to honour the earthquake victims and commit the country to improved disaster preparedness.

The Pakistan government, in collaboration with the United Nations and other international organisations and partners, has made significant progress in implementing these frameworks and policies at sub-national levels, especially in high-risk areas. A wide range of practical interventions including risk and hazard mapping, conditional cash transfers for the building of disaster resistant shelters, improved water management, strengthening existing infrastructure, community preparedness and disaster risk management capacity strengthening (from national to sub-national levels) have been deployed to reduce the country's exposure and vulnerability to natural disasters.[85]

Improving local and international immediate health responses

[edit]

Although the scale of the international response to the 2005 earthquake was unprecedented, several conclusions can be drawn to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of immediate post-disaster health responses.

Firstly, longstanding under-investments in staffing, equipment and infrastructure meant that local health facilities could not provide immediate emergency care in the aftermath of the earthquake. They were effectively replaced by more than 50 "semi-permanent" foreign field hospitals which provided emergency care as well routine health services up to 9 months after the earthquake in the most at-risk areas. Such measures, although necessary at the time, are unsustainable and delay critical investments in local health facilities which are better positioned to provide cost-effective, in-time emergency care to affected populations.[86]

Secondly, the first responders to the Pakistan earthquake were mostly untrained local volunteers who worked desperately to rescue as many people as possible but lacked the knowledge and skill to safely evacuate and transfer the injured to health facilities. In the case of spinal cord injuries, this often aggravated symptoms and at times led to paralysis.[87] To ensure better preparedness, it will be critical to provide training and logistical and material support to medical volunteers and local community members on emergency care and trauma management.

Medium to long term post-disaster health support and recovery

[edit]

People living in the disaster affected areas presented with the highest incidences of PTSD[7]. This highlighted the need to provide targeted mental health support that specifically addressed PTSD symptoms, notably for the most at-risk groups such as women and children.[88] The usefulness of the short-term, standalone mental health programmes that emerged in the aftermath of the disaster was challenged by the Pakistan Psychiatric Society who advocated for a longer term health systems strengthening approach whereby mental health is fully integrated into primary health care.[82] The implementation of this agenda presents immense challenges in terms of human capital development, financial resources and health sector coordination.

See also

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References

[edit]
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