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In the [[Soviet Union]], systematic [[political abuse of psychiatry]] took place.<ref name="Knapp">{{cite book|last=Knapp|first=Martin|title=Mental health policy and practice across Europe: the future direction of mental health care|year=2007|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|isbn=0335214673|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_KnuP8OwJbMC&pg=PA406}}</ref>{{rp|406}}<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law]]|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=24 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|year=2010|month=January|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119|accessdate=17 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Revue">{{cite book|title=Revue du développement|year=1984|publisher=Society for International Development|page=19|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SbzrAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|19}}<ref name="Lisle">{{cite book|last=Lisle|first=Angela|title=Reflexive Practice|year=2010|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=1450091970|page=47|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=S95ozxvFzDwC&pg=PA47}}</ref>{{rp|47}}<ref name="Kutchins">{{cite book|last1=Kutchins|first1=Herb|last2=Kirk|first2=Stuart|title=Making us crazy: DSM: the psychiatric bible and the creation of mental disorders|year=1997|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0684822806|page=293|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u6zuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|293}}<ref name="van Voren 2002">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1856491048|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA66}}</ref>{{rp|66}}<ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=9048187206|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA490}}</ref>{{rp|490}}<ref name="Finckenauer">{{cite book|last=Finckenauer|first=James|title=Russian youth: law, deviance, and the pursuit of freedom|year=1995|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=1560002069|page=52|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5XKrfwsoc8C&pg=PA52}}</ref>{{rp|52}} Political abuse of psychiatry is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/><ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия|year=2010|month=январь|volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuro.health-ua.com/article/260.html}}</ref> Many authors, including psychiatrists, use the terms "Soviet political psychiatry"<ref name="Smythies">{{cite journal|last=Smythies|first=J.|title=Psychiatry and the neurosciences|journal=[[Psychological Medicine]]|year=1973|month=August|volume=3|issue=3|pages=267–269|pmid=4125732}}</ref><ref name="Soviet Political Psychiatry">{{cite book|title=Soviet Political Psychiatry: The Story of the Opposition|year=1983|publisher=[[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]], Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals|location=London|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5-JcHQAACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Munro 2002">{{cite book|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=Dangerous minds: political psychiatry in China today and its origins in the Mao era|year=2002|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1564322785|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ek8BtI3moPMC&pg=PA179}}</ref>{{rp|179}}<ref name="Rejali">{{cite book|last=Rejali|first=Darius|title=Torture and Democracy|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton |isbn=0691143331|page=395|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-L8GtJY_J00C&pg=PA395}}</ref>{{rp|395}}<ref name="Kadarkay">{{cite book|last=Kadarkay|first=Árpád|title=Human rights in American and Russian political thought|year=1982|publisher=University Press of America|page=205|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HjkeAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|205}} and "punitive psychiatry" instead.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Карательная психиатрия в России (рецензия)|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 1|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/1/punitive.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Институт">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title="Институт дураков" Виктора Некипелова|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/fools.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Магалиф">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Магалиф|first=Александр|title=Коготок увяз – всей птичке пропасть|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2010|issue=№ 1|pages=69–71|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2010/1/12_magalif.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Коротенко">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last1=Коротенко|first1=Ада|last2=Аликина|first2=Наталия|title=Советская психиатрия: Заблуждения и умысел|year=2002|publisher=Издательство «Сфера»|location=Киев|isbn=9667841367|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OFEeAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|60, 77}}<ref name="Пуховский">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Пуховский|first=Николай|title=Очерки общей психопатологии шизофрении|year=2001|publisher=Академический проект|location=Москва|isbn=5829101548|pages=243, 252}}</ref>{{rp|243, 252}}<ref name="Grigorenko">{{cite book|last1=Grigorenko|first1=Elena|last2=Ruzgis|first2=Patricia|last3=Sternberg|first3=Robert|title=Psychology of Russia: past, present, future|year=1997|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=1560723890|page=72|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dMk-Z1jj3tcC&pg=PA72}}</ref>{{rp|72}}<ref name="Vitaliev">{{cite book|last=Vitaliev|first=Vitali|title=Dateline freedom|year=1991|publisher=Hutchinson|isbn=0091746779|page=148|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hInwAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|148}}<ref name="Podrabinek">{{cite book|last=Podrabinek|first=Aleksandr|authorlink=Alexandr Podrabinek|title=Punitive medicine|year=1980|publisher=Karoma Publishers|isbn=0897200225|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XsJrAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|10, 57, 136}}<ref name="van Voren, Bloch">{{cite book|last1=van Voren|first1=Robert|last2=Bloch|first2=Sidney|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse in the Gorbachev era|year=1989|publisher=[[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]]|isbn=9072657012|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Q2xFAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|92, 95, 98}}<ref name="Brintlinger">{{cite book|last1=Brintlinger|first1=Angela|last2=Vinitsky|first2=Ilya|title=Madness and the mad in Russian culture|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=0802091407|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ED3U_XVLwHwC&pg=PA292}}</ref>{{rp|292, 293, 294}}<ref name="West">{{cite book|last1=West|first1=Donald|last2=Green|first2=Richard|title=Sociolegal control of homosexuality: a multi-nation comparison|year=1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=0306455323|page=226|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AwD3FNUJjXwC&pg=PA226}}</ref>{{rp|226}}<ref name="Ball">{{cite book|last1=Ball|first1=Terence|last2=Farr|first2=James|title=After Marx|year=1984|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=0521276616|page=258|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w4M4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258}}</ref>{{rp|258}} In the book ''Punitive Medicine'' by [[Alexander Podrabinek]], the term “punitive medicine” identified with the term “punitive psychiatry” is defined as “a tool in the struggle against dissidents who cannot be punished by legal means.”<ref name="Podrabinek"/>{{rp|63}} Punitive psychiatry is not a special subject, not some special psychiatry but a phenomenon arising with many [[applied sciences]] in [[totalitarian]] countries where they are often forced to serve a criminal regime.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/>
In the [[Soviet Union]], systematic [[political abuse of psychiatry]] took place.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|406}}<ref name="Bonnie"/><ref name="van Voren 2010"/><ref name="Revue"/>{{rp|19}}<ref name="Lisle"/>{{rp|47}}<ref name="Kutchins"/>{{rp|293}}<ref name="van Voren 2002"/><ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}}<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|490}}<ref name="Finckenauer"/>{{rp|52}} Political abuse of psychiatry is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/><ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия|year=2010|month=январь|volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuro.health-ua.com/article/260.html}}</ref> Many authors, including psychiatrists, use the terms "Soviet political psychiatry"<ref name="Smythies"/><ref name="Soviet Political Psychiatry"/><ref name="Munro 2002"/>{{rp|179}}<ref name="Rejali"/>{{rp|395}}<ref name="Kadarkay"/>{{rp|205}} and "punitive psychiatry" instead.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Карательная психиатрия в России (рецензия)|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 1|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/1/punitive.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Институт">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title="Институт дураков" Виктора Некипелова|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/fools.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Магалиф">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Магалиф|first=Александр|title=Коготок увяз – всей птичке пропасть|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2010|issue=№ 1|pages=69–71|issn=1028-8554|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2010/1/12_magalif.htm|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Коротенко">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last1=Коротенко|first1=Ада|last2=Аликина|first2=Наталия|title=Советская психиатрия: Заблуждения и умысел|year=2002|publisher=Издательство «Сфера»|location=Киев|isbn=9667841367|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OFEeAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|60, 77}}<ref name="Пуховский">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Пуховский|first=Николай|title=Очерки общей психопатологии шизофрении|year=2001|publisher=Академический проект|location=Москва|isbn=5829101548|pages=243, 252}}</ref>{{rp|243, 252}}<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}}<ref name="Vitaliev"/>{{rp|148}}<ref name="Podrabinek"/>{{rp|10, 57, 136}}<ref name="van Voren, Bloch"/>{{rp|92, 95, 98}}<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|292, 293, 294}}<ref name="West"/>{{rp|226}}<ref name="Ball"/>{{rp|258}} In the book ''Punitive Medicine'' by [[Alexander Podrabinek]], the term “punitive medicine” identified with the term “punitive psychiatry” is defined as “a tool in the struggle against dissidents who cannot be punished by legal means.”<ref name="Podrabinek"/>{{rp|63}} Punitive psychiatry is not a special subject, not some special psychiatry but a phenomenon arising with many [[applied sciences]] in [[totalitarian]] countries where they are often forced to serve a criminal regime.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/>


Psychiatric confinement of sane people is uniformly considered a particularly pernicious form of repression<ref name="Bonnie"/> and Soviet punitive psychiatry was one of the key weapons of both illegal and legal repression.<ref name="West"/>{{rp|226}} Soviet psychiatric hospitals were used by the authorities as [[prison]]s in order to isolate hundreds or thousands of [[political prisoner]]s from the rest of society, discredit their ideas, and break them physically and mentally.<ref name="torture">See: [[Sidney Bloch]] and [[Peter Reddaway]] (1984). ''Soviet Psychiatric Abuse: The Shadow over World Psychiatry''. Victor Gollancz, London.,</ref> This method was also employed against religious prisoners, including especially well-educated former [[atheist]]s who adopted a religion; in such cases their religious faith was determined to be a form of mental illness that needed to be cured.<ref>Dimitry Pospielovsky. Soviet Anti-Religious Campaigns and Persecutions, Vol 2 of A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice, and the Believer. St Martin's Press, New York (1988). pp 36, 140, 156, 178-181</ref>
Psychiatric confinement of sane people is uniformly considered a particularly pernicious form of repression<ref name="Bonnie"/> and Soviet punitive psychiatry was one of the key weapons of both illegal and legal repression.<ref name="West"/>{{rp|226}} Soviet psychiatric hospitals were used by the authorities as [[prison]]s in order to isolate hundreds or thousands of [[political prisoner]]s from the rest of society, discredit their ideas, and break them physically and mentally.<ref name="torture"/> This method was also employed against religious prisoners, including especially well-educated former [[atheist]]s who adopted a religion; in such cases their religious faith was determined to be a form of mental illness that needed to be cured.<ref>Dimitry Pospielovsky. Soviet Anti-Religious Campaigns and Persecutions, Vol 2 of A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice, and the Believer. St Martin's Press, New York (1988). pp 36, 140, 156, 178-181</ref>


Following the fall of the Soviet Union, it was often reported that some opposition activists and journalists were detained in Russian psychiatric institutions in order to intimidate and isolate them from society.<ref name="Activist">{{cite news|title=Activist held in psychiatric hospital|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/jul/29/briefly-98482602/|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Times]]|date=29 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite news|last=Rodriguez|first=Alex|title=Russian dissidents called mentally ill|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2007-08-07/news/0708070053_1_vladimir-bukovsky-soviet-labor-camps-asylum|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=August 12, 2007}}</ref><ref name="Хотелось бы">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Хотелось бы иметь права|url=http://www.novayagazeta.ru/data/2007/58/16.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=Новая газета|date=02.08.2007}}</ref><ref name="Blomfield">{{cite news|last=Blomfield|first=Adrian|title=Labelled mad for daring to criticise the Kremlin|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560192/Labelled-mad-for-daring-to-criticise-the-Kremlin.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=13 August 2007}}</ref><ref name="Gee">{{cite news|last=Gee|first=Alastair|title=Russian dissident 'forcibly detained in mental hospital|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/russian-dissident-forcibly-detained-in-mental-hospital-459539.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=Monday, 30 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="Волчек">{{ru icon}} {{cite web|last=Волчек|first=Дмитрий|title=Освободить Алексея Мананникова|url=http://www.svobodanews.ru/content/article/2259281.html|publisher=[[Radio Liberty]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Подрабинек 2011">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Не рождественская история|url=http://www.ej.ru/?a=note&id=10697|accessdate=24 April 2011|newspaper=Ежедневный журнал|date=27 December 2010}}</ref><ref name="Nyquist">{{cite news|last=Nyquist|first=Jeffrey|title=Marina Kalashnikova's Warning to the West|url=http://www.financialsensearchive.com/stormwatch/geo/pastanalysis/2009/0717.html|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=Global Analysis|date=2009-07-17}}</ref><ref name="Finn">{{cite news|last=Finn|first=Peter|title=In Russia, Psychiatry Is Again a Tool Against Dissent|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/29/AR2006092901592_pf.html|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=Saturday, September 30, 2006}}</ref> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, it was often reported that some opposition activists and journalists were detained in Russian psychiatric institutions in order to intimidate and isolate them from society.<ref name="Activist"/><ref name="Rodriguez"/><ref name="Хотелось бы">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Хотелось бы иметь права|url=http://www.novayagazeta.ru/data/2007/58/16.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=Новая газета|date=02.08.2007}}</ref><ref name="Blomfield"/><ref name="Gee"/><ref name="Волчек">{{ru icon}} {{cite web|last=Волчек|first=Дмитрий|title=Освободить Алексея Мананникова|url=http://www.svobodanews.ru/content/article/2259281.html|publisher=[[Radio Liberty]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Подрабинек 2011">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Не рождественская история|url=http://www.ej.ru/?a=note&id=10697|accessdate=24 April 2011|newspaper=Ежедневный журнал|date=27 December 2010}}</ref><ref name="Nyquist"/><ref name="Finn"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>


== Background ==
== Background ==
{{Repression in the Soviet Union}}
{{Repression in the Soviet Union}}
Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1857759478|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name="Semple">{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0198527837|page=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0807085928|page=14|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0816064059|page=3|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}}
Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud"/>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name="Semple"/>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl"/>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll"/>{{rp|3}}


[[Dissident]]s were locked away in psychiatric wards, the so-called ''psikhushka''.<ref name="Matvejević">{{cite book|last=Matvejević|first=Predrag|title=Between exile and asylum: an eastern epistolary|year=2004|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=9639241857|page=32|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=qRrv8MqXMxYC&pg=PA32}}</ref>{{rp|32}} Psikhushka is [[Russian language|Russian]] ironic diminutive for "mental hospital".<ref name="Hunt">{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=Kathleen|title=Abandoned to the state: cruelty and neglect in Russian orphanages|year=1998|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|isbn=1564321916|pages=xii|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=bwD0NUtGMg4C&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>{{rp|xii}} One of the first psikhushkas was the Psychiatric Prison Hospital in the city of [[Kazan]]. It was transferred to [[NKVD]] control in 1939 under the order of [[Lavrentiy Beria]].<ref>Vadim J. Birstein. ''The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science.'' Westview Press (2004) ISBN 0-813-34280-5</ref> International [[human rights defenders]] such as [[Walter Reich]] have long recorded the methods by which Soviet psychiatrists in Psikhushka hospitals diagnosed [[schizophrenia]] in political dissenters.<ref name="Metzl"/>{{rp|14}}
[[Dissident]]s were locked away in psychiatric wards, the so-called ''psikhushka''.<ref name="Matvejević">{{cite book|last=Matvejević|first=Predrag|title=Between exile and asylum: an eastern epistolary|year=2004|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=9639241857|page=32|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=qRrv8MqXMxYC&pg=PA32}}</ref>{{rp|32}} Psikhushka is [[Russian language|Russian]] ironic diminutive for "mental hospital".<ref name="Hunt"/>{{rp|xii}} One of the first psikhushkas was the Psychiatric Prison Hospital in the city of [[Kazan]]. It was transferred to [[NKVD]] control in 1939 under the order of [[Lavrentiy Beria]].<ref>Vadim J. Birstein. ''The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science.'' Westview Press (2004) ISBN 0-813-34280-5</ref> International [[human rights defenders]] such as [[Walter Reich]] have long recorded the methods by which Soviet psychiatrists in Psikhushka hospitals diagnosed [[schizophrenia]] in political dissenters.<ref name="Metzl"/>{{rp|14}}


As early as 1948, the Soviet secret service took an interest in this area of medicine.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} It was one of the superiors of the [[Soviet secret police]], [[Andrey Vyshinsky]], who commanded to use psychiatry as a tool of repression.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|495}} A system of political abuse of psychiatry was developed at the end of [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime.<ref name="van Voren 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Keukens|first1=Rob|last2=van Voren|first2=Robert|title=Coercion in psychiatry: still an instrument of political misuse?|journal=BMC Psychiatry|date=|year=2007|month=December|volume=7(Suppl 1)|pages=S4|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-7-S1-S4|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-244X-7-S1-S4.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> According to Alexander Etkind, punitive psychiatry was not inherited from the Stalin period that simply did not require such an expensive substitute for the [[GULAG]] (the [[acronym]] for Chief Administration for Corrective Labor Camps, the penitentiary system in the Stalin years).<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}} The abuse of psychiatry was a natural product of the later Soviet era.<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}} From the mid-1970s to the 1990s, the structure of mental health service conformed to the double standard in society, that of two separate systems which peacefully co-existed despite conflicts between them:
As early as 1948, the Soviet secret service took an interest in this area of medicine.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} It was one of the superiors of the [[Soviet secret police]], [[Andrey Vyshinsky]], who commanded to use psychiatry as a tool of repression.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|495}} A system of political abuse of psychiatry was developed at the end of [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime.<ref name="van Voren 2007"/> According to Alexander Etkind, punitive psychiatry was not inherited from the Stalin period that simply did not require such an expensive substitute for the [[GULAG]] (the [[acronym]] for Chief Administration for Corrective Labor Camps, the penitentiary system in the Stalin years).<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}} The abuse of psychiatry was a natural product of the later Soviet era.<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}} From the mid-1970s to the 1990s, the structure of mental health service conformed to the double standard in society, that of two separate systems which peacefully co-existed despite conflicts between them:
# the first system was punitive psychiatry that straight served the institute of power and was led by the [[Serbsky Institute|Moscow Institute for Forensic Psychiatry]] named after [[Vladimir Serbsky|Serbsky]];
# the first system was punitive psychiatry that straight served the institute of power and was led by the [[Serbsky Institute|Moscow Institute for Forensic Psychiatry]] named after [[Vladimir Serbsky|Serbsky]];
# the second system was composed of elite, psychotherapeutically oriented clinics and was led by the [[Leningrad Psychoneurological Institute]] named after [[Vladimir Bekhterev]].<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}}
# the second system was composed of elite, psychotherapeutically oriented clinics and was led by the [[Leningrad Psychoneurological Institute]] named after [[Vladimir Bekhterev]].<ref name="Grigorenko"/>{{rp|72}}
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{{main|Pavlovian session}}
{{main|Pavlovian session}}
[[File:Ivan Pavlov (Nobel).png|thumb|left|[[Ivan Pavlov]] (1849—1936), a Russian physiologist in the name of whom the Joint Session was held on October 11–15, 1951]]
[[File:Ivan Pavlov (Nobel).png|thumb|left|[[Ivan Pavlov]] (1849—1936), a Russian physiologist in the name of whom the Joint Session was held on October 11–15, 1951]]
A precursor of later abuses in psychiatry in the Soviet Union and the most somber event in the history of Russian-Soviet psychiatry was the so-called "[[Pavlovian session|Joint Session]]" of the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]] and the Board of the [[All-Union Neurologic and Psychiatric Association]], held in the name of [[Ivan Pavlov]] in October 1951, considered the matter of several leading neuroscientists and psychiatrists of the time (for example, [[Grunya Sukhareva|G. Sukhareva]], [[Vasily Gilyarovsky|V. Gilyarovsky]], [[Raisa Golant|R. Golant]], [[Aleksandr Shmaryan|A. Shmaryan]], [[Mikhail Gurevich (psychiatrist)|M. Gurevich]]) who were charged with practicing "anti-Pavlovian, anti-Marxist, idealistic, reactionary" science damaging to Soviet psychiatry.<ref name="Lavretsky">{{cite journal|last=Lavretsky|first=Helen|title=The Russian Concept of Schizophrenia: A Review of the Literature |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|year=1998|volume=24|issue=4|pages=537–557|pmid=9853788|url=http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/4/537.full.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>{{rp|540}} These talented psychiatrists had to admit publicly to their wrong beliefs and mistakes and promise to profess only Pavlov's teaching.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} During the Joint Session, scientists falsely acknowledged their "wrongdoings" and gave up their beliefs, out of fear.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} But in the closing speech, the lead author of the policy report [[Andrei Snezhnevsky|A. Snezhnevsky]] stated that they “have not disarmed themselves and continue to remain in the old anti-Pavlovian positions”, thereby causing “grave damage to the Soviet scientific and practical psychiatry”, and the vice president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences accused them that they “diligently fall down to the dirty source of American pseudo-science”.<ref name=Гуревич>{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Михаил Осипович (Иосифович) Гуревич|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2009|issue=№ 3|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2009/3/03_gurevic.htm|accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref> The fear and less than noble ambitions of the accusers including [[Irina Strelchuk|I. Strelchuk]], [[Vasily Banshchikov|V. Banshchikov]], [[Oleg Kerbikov|O. Kerbikov]], and A. Snezhnevsky were also likely to make them serve in the role of inquisitors.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} Not surprisingly, many of them were advanced and appointed to leadership positions shortly after the session.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}}
A precursor of later abuses in psychiatry in the Soviet Union and the most somber event in the history of Russian-Soviet psychiatry was the so-called "[[Pavlovian session|Joint Session]]" of the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]] and the Board of the [[All-Union Neurologic and Psychiatric Association]], held in the name of [[Ivan Pavlov]] in October 1951, considered the matter of several leading neuroscientists and psychiatrists of the time (for example, [[Grunya Sukhareva|G. Sukhareva]], [[Vasily Gilyarovsky|V. Gilyarovsky]], [[Raisa Golant|R. Golant]], [[Aleksandr Shmaryan|A. Shmaryan]], [[Mikhail Gurevich (psychiatrist)|M. Gurevich]]) who were charged with practicing "anti-Pavlovian, anti-Marxist, idealistic, reactionary" science damaging to Soviet psychiatry.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} These talented psychiatrists had to admit publicly to their wrong beliefs and mistakes and promise to profess only Pavlov's teaching.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} During the Joint Session, scientists falsely acknowledged their "wrongdoings" and gave up their beliefs, out of fear.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} But in the closing speech, the lead author of the policy report [[Andrei Snezhnevsky|A. Snezhnevsky]] stated that they “have not disarmed themselves and continue to remain in the old anti-Pavlovian positions”, thereby causing “grave damage to the Soviet scientific and practical psychiatry”, and the vice president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences accused them that they “diligently fall down to the dirty source of American pseudo-science”.<ref name=Гуревич>{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Михаил Осипович (Иосифович) Гуревич|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2009|issue=№ 3|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2009/3/03_gurevic.htm|accessdate=4 July 2011}}</ref> The fear and less than noble ambitions of the accusers including [[Irina Strelchuk|I. Strelchuk]], [[Vasily Banshchikov|V. Banshchikov]], [[Oleg Kerbikov|O. Kerbikov]], and A. Snezhnevsky were also likely to make them serve in the role of inquisitors.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} Not surprisingly, many of them were advanced and appointed to leadership positions shortly after the session.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}}


The Joint Session also affected [[neuroscience]] in such a way that the best neuroscientists of the time, such as academicians [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. Anokhin]], [[Aleksey Speransky|А. Speransky]], [[Lina Stern|L. Stern]], [[Ivan Beritashvili|I. Beritashvili]], and [[Leon Orbeli|L. Orbeli]], who headed various scientific directions at that time, were labeled as anti-Pavlov, anti-materialist and reactionaries, and discharged from their positions.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} These scientists lost their laboratories, and some were subjected to tortures in prisons.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} The Moscow, Leningrad, Ukrainian, Georgian, and Armenian schools of neuroscience and neurophysiology were damaged, at least for a while.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} The Joint Session ravaged productive research in neurosciences and psychiatry for years to come.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} It was pseudoscience that took over.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}}
The Joint Session also affected [[neuroscience]] in such a way that the best neuroscientists of the time, such as academicians [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. Anokhin]], [[Aleksey Speransky|А. Speransky]], [[Lina Stern|L. Stern]], [[Ivan Beritashvili|I. Beritashvili]], and [[Leon Orbeli|L. Orbeli]], who headed various scientific directions at that time, were labeled as anti-Pavlov, anti-materialist and reactionaries, and discharged from their positions.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} These scientists lost their laboratories, and some were subjected to tortures in prisons.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} The Moscow, Leningrad, Ukrainian, Georgian, and Armenian schools of neuroscience and neurophysiology were damaged, at least for a while.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} The Joint Session ravaged productive research in neurosciences and psychiatry for years to come.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}} It was pseudoscience that took over.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|540}}


After the joint session of the [[USSR Academy of Sciences]] and the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]] on June 28 — July 4, 1950 and during the session of the Presidium of the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Board of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists on October 11–15, 1951, the leading role was given to Snezhnevky's school.<ref name="Cold War">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Cold War in Psychiatry: Human Factors, Secret Actors|year=2010|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=9042030488|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ru3-kQAACAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|101}} The 1950 decision to give monopoly over psychiatry to the Pavlovian school of [[Andrei Snezhnevsky]] was one of crucial factors of the onset of political psychiatry.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|494}} The Soviet doctors, under the incentive of A.V. Sneznevsky, devised "Pavlovian theory of schizophrenia" on the strength of which they diagnosticated this illness in political oppositionists.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9024717809|pages=28–30|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA30}}</ref>{{rp|30}}
After the joint session of the [[USSR Academy of Sciences]] and the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]] on June 28 — July 4, 1950 and during the session of the Presidium of the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Board of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists on October 11–15, 1951, the leading role was given to Snezhnevky's school.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|101}} The 1950 decision to give monopoly over psychiatry to the Pavlovian school of [[Andrei Snezhnevsky]] was one of crucial factors of the onset of political psychiatry.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|494}} The Soviet doctors, under the incentive of A.V. Sneznevsky, devised "Pavlovian theory of schizophrenia" on the strength of which they diagnosticated this illness in political oppositionists.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|30}}


== Sluggish schizophrenia ==
== Sluggish schizophrenia ==
{{main|Sluggish schizophrenia}}
{{main|Sluggish schizophrenia}}
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:left; width:30%; float:right; padding:10px 15px; display:table;">"The incarceration of free thinking healthy people in madhouses is spiritual murder, it is a variation of the gas chamber, even more cruel; the torture of the people being killed is more malicious and more prolonged. Like the gas chambers, these crimes will never be forgotten and those involved in them will be condemned for all time during their life and after their death."<ref name="Sagan">{{cite journal|last1=Sagan|first1=Leonard|last2=Jonsen|first2=Albert||title=Medical Ethics and Torture
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="text-align:left; width:30%; float:right; padding:10px 15px; display:table;">"The incarceration of free thinking healthy people in madhouses is spiritual murder, it is a variation of the gas chamber, even more cruel; the torture of the people being killed is more malicious and more prolonged. Like the gas chambers, these crimes will never be forgotten and those involved in them will be condemned for all time during their life and after their death."<ref name="Sagan"/> <small>([[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]])</small></blockquote>
|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|year=1976|month=24 June|volume=294|issue=26|pages=1427–1430|pmid=944852|pmc=|doi=10.1056/NEJM197606242942605|url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM197606242942605}}</ref> <small>([[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]])</small></blockquote>


Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of "[[sluggish schizophrenia]]" in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1405124040|page=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}} It was the diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia" that was most prominently used in cases of dissidents.<ref name="Reich">{{cite journal|last=Reich|first=Walter|title=The world of Soviet psychiatry|journal=The New York Times|year=1983|month=30 January|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/01/30/magazine/the-world-of-soviet-psychiatry.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> The leading critics implied that Snezhnevsky had designed the Soviet model of schizophrenia and this diagnosis to make political dissent into a mental disease.<ref name="Stone, 2002">{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=Alan|authorlink=Alan A. Stone|title=Psychiatrists on the side of the angels: the Falun Gong and Soviet Jewry |journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=107–111|pmid=11931357|doi=|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/107.pdf}}</ref>
Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of "[[sluggish schizophrenia]]" in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona"/>{{rp|77}} It was the diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia" that was most prominently used in cases of dissidents.<ref name="Reich"/> The leading critics implied that Snezhnevsky had designed the Soviet model of schizophrenia and this diagnosis to make political dissent into a mental disease.<ref name="Stone, 2002"/>


According [[Robert van Voren]], the political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR arose from the conception that people who opposed the Soviet regime were mentally sick since there was no other logical rationale why one would oppose the sociopolitical system considered the best in the world.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> The diagnosis "sluggish schizophrenia," a longstanding concept further developed by the Moscow School of Psychiatry and particularly by its chief [[Andrei Snezhnevsky]], furnished a very handy framework for explaining this behavior.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>
According [[Robert van Voren]], the political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR arose from the conception that people who opposed the Soviet regime were mentally sick since there was no other logical rationale why one would oppose the sociopolitical system considered the best in the world.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> The diagnosis "sluggish schizophrenia," a longstanding concept further developed by the Moscow School of Psychiatry and particularly by its chief [[Andrei Snezhnevsky]], furnished a very handy framework for explaining this behavior.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>
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Although majority of experts agree that the basic group of psychiatrists that developed this concept did so on the instructions of the Soviet secret service [[KGB]] and the party and understood very well what they were doing, this seemed to many Soviet psychiatrists to be a very logical explanation as they were not able to explain to themselves otherwise why someone would be willing to abandon his happiness, family, and career for a conviction or idea which was so different from what most individuals believed or made themselves believe.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>
Although majority of experts agree that the basic group of psychiatrists that developed this concept did so on the instructions of the Soviet secret service [[KGB]] and the party and understood very well what they were doing, this seemed to many Soviet psychiatrists to be a very logical explanation as they were not able to explain to themselves otherwise why someone would be willing to abandon his happiness, family, and career for a conviction or idea which was so different from what most individuals believed or made themselves believe.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>


A. Snezhnevsky, the most prominent theorist of Soviet psychiatry and director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]], developed a novel [[classification of mental disorders]] postulating an original set of diagnostic criteria.<ref name="Ougrin">{{cite journal|last1=Ougrin|first1=Dennis|last2=Gluzman|first2=Semyon|authorlink2=Semyon Gluzman|last3=Dratcu|first3=Luiz|title=Psychiatry in post-communist Ukraine: dismantling the past, paving the way for the future|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2006|month=December|volume=30|issue=12|pages=456–459|doi=10.1192/pb.30.12.456|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/30/12/456|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> The Soviet model of schizophrenia is based on the hypothesis that a single fundamental characteristic, by which schizophrenia spectrum disorders are distinguished clinically, is their longitudinal course.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|543}} The hypothesis implies that there are three main types of schizophrenia:
A. Snezhnevsky, the most prominent theorist of Soviet psychiatry and director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the [[USSR Academy of Medical Sciences]], developed a novel [[classification of mental disorders]] postulating an original set of diagnostic criteria.<ref name="Ougrin"/> The Soviet model of schizophrenia is based on the hypothesis that a single fundamental characteristic, by which schizophrenia spectrum disorders are distinguished clinically, is their longitudinal course.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|543}} The hypothesis implies that there are three main types of schizophrenia:
# the continuous type that is defined as unremitting, proceeding with either a rapid (“malignant”) or a slow (“sluggish”) progression and has a poor prognosis in both instances;
# the continuous type that is defined as unremitting, proceeding with either a rapid (“malignant”) or a slow (“sluggish”) progression and has a poor prognosis in both instances;
# the periodic, or recurrent type that is characterized by an acute attack followed by full remission with minimal progression, if any;
# the periodic, or recurrent type that is characterized by an acute attack followed by full remission with minimal progression, if any;
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In particular, the scope was widened by sluggish schizophrenia because according to Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, patients with this diagnosis were capable of functioning almost normally in the social sense.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Their symptoms could be like those of a neurosis or could assume a paranoid character.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> The patients with paranoid symptoms retained some insight into their condition but overestimated their own significance and could manifest grandiose ideas of reforming society.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Thereby, sluggish schizophrenia could have such symptoms as "reform delusions," "perseverance," and "struggle for the truth."<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>
In particular, the scope was widened by sluggish schizophrenia because according to Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, patients with this diagnosis were capable of functioning almost normally in the social sense.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Their symptoms could be like those of a neurosis or could assume a paranoid character.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> The patients with paranoid symptoms retained some insight into their condition but overestimated their own significance and could manifest grandiose ideas of reforming society.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Thereby, sluggish schizophrenia could have such symptoms as "reform delusions," "perseverance," and "struggle for the truth."<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>


As V.D. Stayzhkin reported, Snezhnevsky diagnosticated a reformation delusion for every case when a patient "develops a new principle of human knowledge, drafts an academy of human happiness, and many other projects for the benefit of mankind."<ref name="Stayzhkin">{{cite journal|last=Stayzhkin|first=V.D.|title=Diagnosis of a Paranoiac (Delusional) Personality Development in the Forensic Psychiatric Expert Examination|journal=The Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology|year=1992|pages=65–68|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=trNqj34bYDQC&pg=PA66|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>{{rp|66}}
As V.D. Stayzhkin reported, Snezhnevsky diagnosticated a reformation delusion for every case when a patient "develops a new principle of human knowledge, drafts an academy of human happiness, and many other projects for the benefit of mankind."<ref name="Stayzhkin"/>{{rp|66}}


In the 1960s and 1970s, theories, which contained ideas about reforming society and struggling for truth, and religious convictions were not referred to delusional paranoid disorders in practically all foreign classifications, but Soviet psychiatry, proceeding from ideological conceptions, referred critique of political system and proposals to reform this system to delusional construct.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|19}} Diagnostic approaches of conception of sluggish schizophrenia and paranoiac states with delusion of reformism were used only in the Soviet Union and several [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European countries]].<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|18}}
In the 1960s and 1970s, theories, which contained ideas about reforming society and struggling for truth, and religious convictions were not referred to delusional paranoid disorders in practically all foreign classifications, but Soviet psychiatry, proceeding from ideological conceptions, referred critique of political system and proposals to reform this system to delusional construct.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|19}} Diagnostic approaches of conception of sluggish schizophrenia and paranoiac states with delusion of reformism were used only in the Soviet Union and several [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European countries]].<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|18}}


American psychiatrist [[Alan A. Stone]] stated that Western criticism of Soviet psychiatry aimed at Sneznevsky personally, because he was essentially responsible for the Soviet concept of schizophrenia with a "sluggish type" manifestation by "reformerism" including other symptoms.<ref name="Stone">{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Alan|authorlink=Alan A. Stone|title=Law, Psychiatry, and Morality: Essays and Analysis|year=1985|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=0880482095|page=8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GK3Tt0e_fOgC&pg=PA8}}</ref>{{rp|8}} One can readily apply this diagnostic scheme to dissenters.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|8}} Snezhnevsky was long attacked in the West as an exemplar of psychiatric abuse in the USSR.<ref name="Reich"/> He was charged with cynically developing a system of diagnosis which could be bent for political purposes, and he himself diagnosed or was involved in a series of famous dissident cases, including those of the biologist [[Zhores Medvedev]], the mathematician [[Leonid Plyushch]],<ref name="Reich"/> and [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] whom Snezhnevsky diagnosed as schizophrenic on 5 July 1962.<ref name="Severe Personality Disorder">{{cite journal|last=|first=|title=Diagnosis of a "Severe Personality Disorder" as a Cause of Criminal Inresponsibility: V.K. Bukovsky|journal=The Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology|year=1992|pages=69–73|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=trNqj34bYDQC&pg=PA66|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>{{rp|70}} In 1980, the Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry, established by the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] in 1978, charged Snezhnevsky with involvement in the abuse<ref name="Calloway">{{cite book|last=Calloway|first=Paul|title=Russian/Soviet and Western psychiatry: a contemporary comparative study|year=1993|publisher=Wiley|page=223|isbn=0471595748|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6WhFAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|223}} and recommended that Snezhnevsky, who had been honoured as a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, be invited to attend the College's Court of Electors to answer criticisms because he was responsible for the compulsory detention of this celebrated dissident, Leonid Plyushch.<ref name="Levine">{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=Sidney|title=The Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1981|month=May|volume=5|issue=5|pages=94–95|doi=10.1192/pb.5.5.94|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/5/5/94.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> Instead Snezhnevsky chose to resign his Fellowship.<ref name="Levine"/>
American psychiatrist [[Alan A. Stone]] stated that Western criticism of Soviet psychiatry aimed at Sneznevsky personally, because he was essentially responsible for the Soviet concept of schizophrenia with a "sluggish type" manifestation by "reformerism" including other symptoms.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|8}} One can readily apply this diagnostic scheme to dissenters.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|8}} Snezhnevsky was long attacked in the West as an exemplar of psychiatric abuse in the USSR.<ref name="Reich"/> He was charged with cynically developing a system of diagnosis which could be bent for political purposes, and he himself diagnosed or was involved in a series of famous dissident cases, including those of the biologist [[Zhores Medvedev]], the mathematician [[Leonid Plyushch]],<ref name="Reich"/> and [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] whom Snezhnevsky diagnosed as schizophrenic on 5 July 1962.<ref name="Severe Personality Disorder"/>{{rp|70}} In 1980, the Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry, established by the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] in 1978, charged Snezhnevsky with involvement in the abuse<ref name="Calloway"/>{{rp|223}} and recommended that Snezhnevsky, who had been honoured as a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, be invited to attend the College's Court of Electors to answer criticisms because he was responsible for the compulsory detention of this celebrated dissident, Leonid Plyushch.<ref name="Levine"/> Instead Snezhnevsky chose to resign his Fellowship.<ref name="Levine"/>


== Normative documents ==
== Normative documents ==
[[File:Andropov1.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Yuri Andropov]] (1914–1984), the [[KGB Chairman]] and [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[CPSU]]]]
[[File:Andropov1.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Yuri Andropov]] (1914–1984), the [[KGB Chairman]] and [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[CPSU]]]]
In May 1967, [[Yuri Andropov]] became the [[KGB Chairman]].<ref name="Nuti">{{cite book|last=Nuti|first=Leopoldo|title=The crisis of détente in Europe: from Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985|year=2009|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=0415460514|pages=29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T3k9ednYVbwC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} On 3 July 1967, he made a proposal to establish for dealing with the political opposition the KGB’s Fifth Directorate<ref name="Nuti"/>{{rp|29}} (ideological counterintelligence)<ref name="Albats">{{cite book|last=Albats|first=Yevgenia|title=KGB: state within a state|year=1995|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1850439958|pages=177|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zeYEhcHWjEUC&pg=PA177}}</ref>{{rp|177}}. At the end of July, the directorate was established and entered in its files cases of all Soviet dissidents including [[Andrei Sakharov]] and [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]].<ref name="Nuti"/> In 1968, Andropov as the KGB Chairman issued his order “On the tasks of State security agencies in combating the ideological sabotage by the adversary”, calling for struggle against dissidents and their imperialist masters.<ref name="Andrew">{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Christopher|authorlink1=Christopher Andrew|last2=Mitrokhin|first2=Vasili|authorlink2=Vasili Mitrokhin|title=The sword and the shield: the Mitrokhin archive and the secret history of the KGB|year=1999|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|isbn=0465003109|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VpgkAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|7}} He aimed to achieve “the destruction of dissent in all its forms” and insisted that the struggle for human rights had to be considered as a part of a wide-ranging imperialist plot to undermine the Soviet state’s foundation.<ref name="Andrew"/>{{rp|7}}
In May 1967, [[Yuri Andropov]] became the [[KGB Chairman]].<ref name="Nuti"/>{{rp|29}} On 3 July 1967, he made a proposal to establish for dealing with the political opposition the KGB’s Fifth Directorate<ref name="Nuti"/>{{rp|29}} (ideological counterintelligence)<ref name="Albats"/>{{rp|177}}. At the end of July, the directorate was established and entered in its files cases of all Soviet dissidents including [[Andrei Sakharov]] and [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]].<ref name="Nuti"/> In 1968, Andropov as the KGB Chairman issued his order “On the tasks of State security agencies in combating the ideological sabotage by the adversary”, calling for struggle against dissidents and their imperialist masters.<ref name="Andrew"/>{{rp|7}} He aimed to achieve “the destruction of dissent in all its forms” and insisted that the struggle for human rights had to be considered as a part of a wide-ranging imperialist plot to undermine the Soviet state’s foundation.<ref name="Andrew"/>{{rp|7}}


On 29 April 1969, Andropov submitted to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] an elaborated plan for creating a network of mental hospitals to defend the “Soviet Government and socialist order” from dissenters.<ref name="Albats"/>{{rp|177}} The proposal by Andropov to use psychiatry for struggle against dissenters was implemented.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|42}}
On 29 April 1969, Andropov submitted to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] an elaborated plan for creating a network of mental hospitals to defend the “Soviet Government and socialist order” from dissenters.<ref name="Albats"/>{{rp|177}} The proposal by Andropov to use psychiatry for struggle against dissenters was implemented.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|42}}
Line 78: Line 77:
Practically in all cases, dissidents were examined in the [[Serbsky Institute|Serbsky Central Research Institute for Forensic Psychiatry]]<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|78}} which conducted forensic-psychiatric expert evaluation of persons brought to justice under political articles.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}} Certified, the persons were sent for [[involuntary treatment]] to special hospitals of the system of [[MVD]] of the [[Russian Federation]].<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}} In 1960s and 1970s, the trials of dissenters and their referral for “treatment” to special psychiatric hospitals of the system of MVD came out into the open before the world public, and information of “psychiatric terror,” which the leadership of the institute was flatly denying, began to appear.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|41}} The majority of psychiatric repressions date from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}}
Practically in all cases, dissidents were examined in the [[Serbsky Institute|Serbsky Central Research Institute for Forensic Psychiatry]]<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|78}} which conducted forensic-psychiatric expert evaluation of persons brought to justice under political articles.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}} Certified, the persons were sent for [[involuntary treatment]] to special hospitals of the system of [[MVD]] of the [[Russian Federation]].<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}} In 1960s and 1970s, the trials of dissenters and their referral for “treatment” to special psychiatric hospitals of the system of MVD came out into the open before the world public, and information of “psychiatric terror,” which the leadership of the institute was flatly denying, began to appear.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|41}} The majority of psychiatric repressions date from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|30}}


According to dissident poet [[Naum Korzhavin]], the atmosphere at the Serbsky Institute in [[Moscow]] altered almost overnight when a [[Daniil Lunts]] became chief of the Fourth Department otherwise known as the Political Department.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Previously, psychiatric departments had been regarded as a 'refuge' against being dispatched to the [[Gulag]], but thenceforth that policy altered.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} The first reports of dissenters being hospitalized on non-medical grounds date from the early 1960s, not long after [[Georgi Morozov]] was appointed director of the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Both Morozov and Lunts were personally involved in numerous well-known cases and were notorious abusers of psychiatry for political purposes.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Daniil Lunts was characterized by [[Viktor Nekipelov]] as "no better than the criminal doctors who performed inhuman experiments on the prisoners in [[Nazi concentration camp]]s."<ref name="Applebaum">{{cite book|last=Applebaum|first=Anne|authorlink=Anne Applebaum|title=Gulag: a history|year=2004|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=1400034094|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fCurJRhH-GgC}}</ref>
According to dissident poet [[Naum Korzhavin]], the atmosphere at the Serbsky Institute in [[Moscow]] altered almost overnight when a [[Daniil Lunts]] became chief of the Fourth Department otherwise known as the Political Department.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Previously, psychiatric departments had been regarded as a 'refuge' against being dispatched to the [[Gulag]], but thenceforth that policy altered.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} The first reports of dissenters being hospitalized on non-medical grounds date from the early 1960s, not long after [[Georgi Morozov]] was appointed director of the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Both Morozov and Lunts were personally involved in numerous well-known cases and were notorious abusers of psychiatry for political purposes.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|402}} Daniil Lunts was characterized by [[Viktor Nekipelov]] as "no better than the criminal doctors who performed inhuman experiments on the prisoners in [[Nazi concentration camp]]s."<ref name="Applebaum"/>


=== Pyotr Grigorenko ===
=== Pyotr Grigorenko ===
[[File:GrigirenkoPetrZina043.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Pyotr Grigorenko]] (1907–1987), a member of the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]] and political prisoner]]
[[File:GrigirenkoPetrZina043.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Pyotr Grigorenko]] (1907–1987), a member of the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]] and political prisoner]]
In 1961, [[Pyotr Grigorenko]] started to openly criticize what he considered the excesses of the Khrushchev regime.<ref name="Bursten">{{cite book|last=Bursten|first=Ben|title=Psychiatry on trial: fact and fantasy in the courtroom|year=2001|publisher=McFarland|isbn=0786410787|pages=151–152|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hLZnornC1FEC&pg=PA151}}</ref>{{rp|151}} He maintained that the special privileges of the political elite did not comply with the principles laid down by [[Lenin]].<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} Grigorenko formed a dissident group — The Group for the Struggle to Revive [[Leninism]].<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} Soviet psychiatrists sitting as legally constituted commissions to inquire into his sanity diagnosed him at least three times — in April 1964, August 1969, and November 1969.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} When arrested, Grigorenko was sent to Moscow's [[Lubyanka prison]], and from there for psychiatric examination to the Serbsky Institute<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} where the first commission, which included Snezhnevsky and Lunts, diagnosed him as suffering from the mental disease in the form of a paranoid delusional development of his personality, accompanied by early signs of cerebral arteriosclerosis.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} Lunts, reporting later on this diagnosis, mentioned that the symptoms of paranoid development were "an overestimation of his own personality reaching messianic proportions" and "reformist ideas."<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} Grigorenko was irresponsible for his actions and was thereby forcibly committed to a special psychiatric hospital.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} While there, the government deprived him of his pension despite the fact that, by law, a mentally sick military officer was entitled to a pension.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} After six months, Grigorenko was found to be in remission and was released for outpatient follow-up.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He required that his pension be restored.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Although he began to draw pension again, it was severely cut.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He became much more active in his dissidence, stirred other people to protest the some of the State's actions and received several warnings from the KGB.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} As Grigorenko had followers in Moscow, he was lured to [[Tashkent]], half a continent away.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Again he was arrested and examined by psychiatric team.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} None of the manifestations or symptoms cited by the Lunts commission were found by the second commission held in Tashkent under the chairmanship of [[Fyodor Detengof]].<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} The diagnosis and evaluation made by the commission was that "Grigorenko's [criminal] activity had a purposeful character, it was related to concrete events and facts… It did not reveal any signs of illness or delusions."<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} The psychiatrists reported that he was not mentally sick, but responsible for his actions.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He had firm convictions which were shared by many of his colleagues and were not delusional.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Having evaluated the records of his preceding hospitalization, they concluded that he had not been sick at that time either.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} The KGB brought Grigorenko back in Moscow and, three months later, arranged a second examination at the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Once again, these psychiatrists found that he had "a paranoid development of the personality" manifested by reformist ideas.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} The commission, which included Lunts and was chaired by Morozov, recommended that he be recommitted to a special psychiatric hospital for the socially dangerous.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} Eventually, after almost four years, he was transferred to a usual mental hospital.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}}
In 1961, [[Pyotr Grigorenko]] started to openly criticize what he considered the excesses of the Khrushchev regime.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} He maintained that the special privileges of the political elite did not comply with the principles laid down by [[Lenin]].<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} Grigorenko formed a dissident group — The Group for the Struggle to Revive [[Leninism]].<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} Soviet psychiatrists sitting as legally constituted commissions to inquire into his sanity diagnosed him at least three times — in April 1964, August 1969, and November 1969.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} When arrested, Grigorenko was sent to Moscow's [[Lubyanka prison]], and from there for psychiatric examination to the Serbsky Institute<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} where the first commission, which included Snezhnevsky and Lunts, diagnosed him as suffering from the mental disease in the form of a paranoid delusional development of his personality, accompanied by early signs of cerebral arteriosclerosis.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} Lunts, reporting later on this diagnosis, mentioned that the symptoms of paranoid development were "an overestimation of his own personality reaching messianic proportions" and "reformist ideas."<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|11}} Grigorenko was irresponsible for his actions and was thereby forcibly committed to a special psychiatric hospital.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|151}} While there, the government deprived him of his pension despite the fact that, by law, a mentally sick military officer was entitled to a pension.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} After six months, Grigorenko was found to be in remission and was released for outpatient follow-up.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He required that his pension be restored.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Although he began to draw pension again, it was severely cut.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He became much more active in his dissidence, stirred other people to protest the some of the State's actions and received several warnings from the KGB.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} As Grigorenko had followers in Moscow, he was lured to [[Tashkent]], half a continent away.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Again he was arrested and examined by psychiatric team.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} None of the manifestations or symptoms cited by the Lunts commission were found by the second commission held in Tashkent under the chairmanship of [[Fyodor Detengof]].<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} The diagnosis and evaluation made by the commission was that "Grigorenko's [criminal] activity had a purposeful character, it was related to concrete events and facts… It did not reveal any signs of illness or delusions."<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} The psychiatrists reported that he was not mentally sick, but responsible for his actions.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} He had firm convictions which were shared by many of his colleagues and were not delusional.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Having evaluated the records of his preceding hospitalization, they concluded that he had not been sick at that time either.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} The KGB brought Grigorenko back in Moscow and, three months later, arranged a second examination at the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} Once again, these psychiatrists found that he had "a paranoid development of the personality" manifested by reformist ideas.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}} The commission, which included Lunts and was chaired by Morozov, recommended that he be recommitted to a special psychiatric hospital for the socially dangerous.<ref name="Stone"/>{{rp|12}} Eventually, after almost four years, he was transferred to a usual mental hospital.<ref name="Bursten"/>{{rp|152}}


In 1979 in [[New York (city)|New York]], Grigorenko was examined by the team of psychologists and psychiatrists including [[Alan A. Stone]], the then President of [[American Psychiatric Association]].<ref name="Abuse">{{cite book|last=|first=|title=Abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union: hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session, September 20, 1983|year=1984|publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E1A1AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|74}} The team came to conclusion that they could find no evidence of mental disease in Grigorenko and his history consistent with mental disease in the past.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|74}}
In 1979 in [[New York (city)|New York]], Grigorenko was examined by the team of psychologists and psychiatrists including [[Alan A. Stone]], the then President of [[American Psychiatric Association]].<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|74}} The team came to conclusion that they could find no evidence of mental disease in Grigorenko and his history consistent with mental disease in the past.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|74}}


In 1981, Pyotr Grigorenko told about his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations in his memoirs ''V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys'' (''In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats'')<ref name="Григоренко">{{cite book|last=Григоренко|first=Пётр|title=В подполье можно встретить только крыс...|year=1981|publisher=Нью-Йорк|location=Детинец|pages=681–736|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookc0b9.html?id=86616&aid=287}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookc0b9.html?id=86616&aid=287 click])</ref> translated into English under the title ''Memoirs'' in 1982.<ref name="Grigorenko, 1982">{{cite book|last=Grigorenko|first=Petr|title=Memoirs|year=1982|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=039301570X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KurYc8531oEC}}</ref>
In 1981, Pyotr Grigorenko told about his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations in his memoirs ''V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys'' (''In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats'')<ref name="Григоренко">{{cite book|last=Григоренко|first=Пётр|title=В подполье можно встретить только крыс...|year=1981|publisher=Нью-Йорк|location=Детинец|pages=681–736|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookc0b9.html?id=86616&aid=287}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookc0b9.html?id=86616&aid=287 click])</ref> translated into English under the title ''Memoirs'' in 1982.<ref name="Grigorenko, 1982"/>


Only in 1992, the official post-mortem forensic psychiatric commission of experts met at Grigorenko’s homeland removed the stigma of mental patient from him and confirmed that the debilitating treatment he underwent in high security psychiatric hospitals for many years was groundless.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|23}} The 1992 psychiatric examination of Grigorenko was described by the ''[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]'' in its numbers 1–4 of 1992.<ref name="20-летие">{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=20-летие НПА России|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2009|issue=№ 1|pages=5–18|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2009/1/01-20.htm|accessdate=20 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref><ref name="Отчетный доклад">{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Отчетный доклад о деятельности НПА России за 2000-2003 гг.|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2004|issue=№ 2|pages=|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2004/2/summary.htm|accessdate=20 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>
Only in 1992, the official post-mortem forensic psychiatric commission of experts met at Grigorenko’s homeland removed the stigma of mental patient from him and confirmed that the debilitating treatment he underwent in high security psychiatric hospitals for many years was groundless.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|23}} The 1992 psychiatric examination of Grigorenko was described by the ''[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]'' in its numbers 1–4 of 1992.<ref name="20-летие">{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=20-летие НПА России|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2009|issue=№ 1|pages=5–18|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2009/1/01-20.htm|accessdate=20 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref><ref name="Отчетный доклад">{{cite journal|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|title=Отчетный доклад о деятельности НПА России за 2000-2003 гг.|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2004|issue=№ 2|pages=|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2004/2/summary.htm|accessdate=20 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>


=== Viktor Rafalsky ===
=== Viktor Rafalsky ===
[[Viktor Rafalsky]], a political prisoner, dissident and author of unpublished plays, novels, and short stories, was committed to Soviet psychiatric prisons in [[Lviv]], [[Dnipropetrovsk]], and [[Leningrad]] for 24 years because of belonging to a clandestine Marxist group (from 1954 to 1959), writing anti-Soviet prose (from 1962 to 1965), and possessing anti-Soviet literature (from 1968 to 1983).<ref name="Struk">{{cite book|last=Struk|first=Danilo (editor)|title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Vol. 4|year=1993|publisher=University of Toronto Press Incorporated|location=London|isbn=0802030092|page=308|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kkgOAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|308}} In the winter of 1987, he was discharged and pronounced sane.<ref name="Struk"/>{{rp|308}} In 1988, Viktor Rafalsky published the first version of his memoirs ''Reportazh iz Niotkuda'' (''Reportage from Nowhere'')<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|219}} describing his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Рафальский">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Рафальский|first=Виктор|title=Репортаж из ниоткуда|journal=Воля: журнал узников тоталитарных систем|year=1995|issue=№ 4–5|pages=162–181|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pages0276.html?Key=23923&page=162|accessdate=21 April 2011}} (The publication in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pages0276.html?Key=23923&page=162 click])</ref>
[[Viktor Rafalsky]], a political prisoner, dissident and author of unpublished plays, novels, and short stories, was committed to Soviet psychiatric prisons in [[Lviv]], [[Dnipropetrovsk]], and [[Leningrad]] for 24 years because of belonging to a clandestine Marxist group (from 1954 to 1959), writing anti-Soviet prose (from 1962 to 1965), and possessing anti-Soviet literature (from 1968 to 1983).<ref name="Struk"/>{{rp|308}} In the winter of 1987, he was discharged and pronounced sane.<ref name="Struk"/>{{rp|308}} In 1988, Viktor Rafalsky published the first version of his memoirs ''Reportazh iz Niotkuda'' (''Reportage from Nowhere'')<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|219}} describing his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Рафальский">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Рафальский|first=Виктор|title=Репортаж из ниоткуда|journal=Воля: журнал узников тоталитарных систем|year=1995|issue=№ 4–5|pages=162–181|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pages0276.html?Key=23923&page=162|accessdate=21 April 2011}} (The publication in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pages0276.html?Key=23923&page=162 click])</ref>


=== Joseph Brodsky ===
=== Joseph Brodsky ===
[[File:Joseph Brodsky.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Joseph Brodsky]] (1940–1996), a Russian poet, American essayist, and the 1987 [[Nobel laureate]] in Literature]]
[[File:Joseph Brodsky.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Joseph Brodsky]] (1940–1996), a Russian poet, American essayist, and the 1987 [[Nobel laureate]] in Literature]]
At the very end of 1963, the poet [[Joseph Brodsky]] was committed for observation to the Kashchenko psychiatric clinic in Moscow where he stayed for several days.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|91}} A few weeks later, his second hospitalization took place: on 13 February he was arrested in Leningrad and on 18 February the Dzerzhinsky District Court sent him for psychiatric examination to "Pryazhka," Psychiatric Hospital No. 2 where he spent about three weeks, from 18 February to 13 March.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|91}} In the mental hospitals, Brodsky was given "tranquilizing" injections, wakened in the middle of the night, immersed into a cold bath, wrapped in a wet sheet, and put next to the heater so that the sheet would cut into his body when it dries.<ref name="Brodsky">{{cite book|last1=Brodsky|first1=Joseph|authorlink1=Joseph Brodsky|last2=Haven|first2=Cynthia|title=Joseph Brodsky: conversations|year=2002|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=1578065283|pages=xviii|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=97hn9almZX0C&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>{{rp|xviii}} These two stints at psychiatric establishments formed the experience underlying ''[[Gorbunov and Gorchakov]]'' written and called by Brodsky "an extremely serious work."<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|90}}. In 1972, when the authorities considered Brodsky for exile and sought an expert opinion on his mental health, they consulted Snezhnevsky who, without examining him personally, diagnosed him as schizophrenic and concluded that he was "not valuable person at all and may be let go."<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|92}}
At the very end of 1963, the poet [[Joseph Brodsky]] was committed for observation to the Kashchenko psychiatric clinic in Moscow where he stayed for several days.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|91}} A few weeks later, his second hospitalization took place: on 13 February he was arrested in Leningrad and on 18 February the Dzerzhinsky District Court sent him for psychiatric examination to "Pryazhka," Psychiatric Hospital No. 2 where he spent about three weeks, from 18 February to 13 March.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|91}} In the mental hospitals, Brodsky was given "tranquilizing" injections, wakened in the middle of the night, immersed into a cold bath, wrapped in a wet sheet, and put next to the heater so that the sheet would cut into his body when it dries.<ref name="Brodsky"/>{{rp|xviii}} These two stints at psychiatric establishments formed the experience underlying ''[[Gorbunov and Gorchakov]]'' written and called by Brodsky "an extremely serious work."<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|90}}. In 1972, when the authorities considered Brodsky for exile and sought an expert opinion on his mental health, they consulted Snezhnevsky who, without examining him personally, diagnosed him as schizophrenic and concluded that he was "not valuable person at all and may be let go."<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|92}}


=== Valery Tarsis ===
=== Valery Tarsis ===
[[File:Valery Tarsis.jpg|130px|thumb|left|[[Valery Tarsis]] (1906–1983), a Russian writer and translator]]
[[File:Valery Tarsis.jpg|130px|thumb|left|[[Valery Tarsis]] (1906–1983), a Russian writer and translator]]
In 1965 in the West, strong public awareness that Soviet psychiatry could be subject to political abuse arose with publication of the book ''Ward 7''<ref name="Tarsis">{{cite book|last=Tarsis|first=Valeriĭ|authorlink=Valery Tarsis|title=Ward 7: an autobiographical novel|year=1965|publisher=Dutton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3XuyAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> by [[Valery Tarsis]], a writer born in 1906 in [[Kiev]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} He based the book upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}}
In 1965 in the West, strong public awareness that Soviet psychiatry could be subject to political abuse arose with publication of the book ''Ward 7''<ref name="Tarsis"/> by [[Valery Tarsis]], a writer born in 1906 in [[Kiev]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} He based the book upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}}


The fictionalised documentary'' Ward No. 7'' by Tarsis was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Marsh">{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=Rosalind|title=Soviet fiction since Stalin: science, politics and literature|year=1986|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0709917767|page=208|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=snsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA208}}</ref>{{rp|208}} In a parallel with the story ''Ward No. 6'' by [[Anton Chekhov]], Tarsis implies that it is the doctors who are mad, whereas the patients are completely sane, although unsuited to a life of slavery.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} Individuals in ward No. 7 are not cured, but persistently maimed; the hospital is a jail and the doctors are gaolers and police spies.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} Most doctors know nothing about psychiatry, but make diagnoses arbitrarily and give all patients the same medication — an algogenic injection or the anti-psychotic drug aminazin<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} known in English as [[Thorazine]].<ref name="Parr">{{cite book|last=Parr|first=Leslie|title=Science of the Times: a New York times survey|year=1981|publisher=New York Times Books|isbn=0812907612|page=137|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fjAfAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|137}} Tarsis denounces Soviet psychiatry as pseudo-science and charlatanism and writes that, firstly, it has pretenses of curing the sickness of men's souls, but denies the existence of the soul; secondly, since there is no satisfactory definition of mental health, there can be no acceptable definition of mental disease in Soviet society.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}}
The fictionalised documentary'' Ward No. 7'' by Tarsis was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} In a parallel with the story ''Ward No. 6'' by [[Anton Chekhov]], Tarsis implies that it is the doctors who are mad, whereas the patients are completely sane, although unsuited to a life of slavery.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} Individuals in ward No. 7 are not cured, but persistently maimed; the hospital is a jail and the doctors are gaolers and police spies.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} Most doctors know nothing about psychiatry, but make diagnoses arbitrarily and give all patients the same medication — an algogenic injection or the anti-psychotic drug aminazin<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}} known in English as [[Thorazine]].<ref name="Parr"/>{{rp|137}} Tarsis denounces Soviet psychiatry as pseudo-science and charlatanism and writes that, firstly, it has pretenses of curing the sickness of men's souls, but denies the existence of the soul; secondly, since there is no satisfactory definition of mental health, there can be no acceptable definition of mental disease in Soviet society.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}}


In 1966, Tarsis was permitted to emigrate to the West, and was soon deprived of his Soviet citizenship.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} As the 1966 memorandum to the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] reported, "KGB continues arrangements for further compromising Tarsis abroad as a mentally ill person."<ref name="О мерах">{{ru icon}} {{cite web|title=О мерах в связи с антисоветскими материалами в английской печати (Тарсиса). Решение Политбюро ЦК № 238/132 от 08.04.66 по записке Захарова и Руденко от 14.02.66 и записки Громыко от 05.04.66.|url=http://www.bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/dis60/pb66-3.pdf|publisher=[http://www.bukovsky-archives.net/ Soviet Archives] collected by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]]|accessdate=15 January 2011}}</ref>
In 1966, Tarsis was permitted to emigrate to the West, and was soon deprived of his Soviet citizenship.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} As the 1966 memorandum to the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] reported, "KGB continues arrangements for further compromising Tarsis abroad as a mentally ill person."<ref name="О мерах">{{ru icon}} {{cite web|title=О мерах в связи с антисоветскими материалами в английской печати (Тарсиса). Решение Политбюро ЦК № 238/132 от 08.04.66 по записке Захарова и Руденко от 14.02.66 и записки Громыко от 05.04.66.|url=http://www.bukovsky-archives.net/pdfs/dis60/pb66-3.pdf|publisher=[http://www.bukovsky-archives.net/ Soviet Archives] collected by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]]|accessdate=15 January 2011}}</ref>
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=== Alexander Esenin-Volpin ===
=== Alexander Esenin-Volpin ===
[[File:Volpin.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Esenin-Volpin]] (b. 1924), a Professor of mathematics at [[Boston University]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
[[File:Volpin.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Esenin-Volpin]] (b. 1924), a Professor of mathematics at [[Boston University]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
Awareness in the West was also raised by the case of [[Alexander Esenin-Volpin]], a son of the famous Russian poet [[Sergei Esenin]] and born in 1924.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} In 1946, he was first committed to the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital for writing poem considered anti-Soviet.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} During Khrushchev's reign, Esenin-Volpin was later hospitalized three times: in 1957, in 1959–1960 in the same the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital and, finally, in 1962–1963.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In 1968, Esenin-Volpin was again hospitalized, and for this once his case achieved the attention in the West.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In February 1968, 99 Soviet mathematicians and scientists signed a protest letter to the Soviet officials demanding his release.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}}<ref name="Zdravkovska">{{cite book|last1=Zdravkovska|first1=Smilka|last2=Duren|first2=Peter|title=Golden years of Moscow mathematics|year=1993|publisher=AMS Bookstore|isbn=0821890034|page=221|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=esJxwK26zE4C&pg=PA221}}</ref>{{rp|221}} After a wave of protests, he was discharged and permitted to immigrate to the USA where he obtained the position of professor of mathematics.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In 2010, [[Alexander Magalif]], who hospitalized Esenin-Volpin, recollected that he had seen a little mark made by a pencil in the corner of the referral to treatment of Esenin-Volpin: "not to discharge from the hospital without coordination with KGB."<ref name="Магалиф"/>
Awareness in the West was also raised by the case of [[Alexander Esenin-Volpin]], a son of the famous Russian poet [[Sergei Esenin]] and born in 1924.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} In 1946, he was first committed to the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital for writing poem considered anti-Soviet.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} During Khrushchev's reign, Esenin-Volpin was later hospitalized three times: in 1957, in 1959–1960 in the same the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital and, finally, in 1962–1963.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In 1968, Esenin-Volpin was again hospitalized, and for this once his case achieved the attention in the West.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In February 1968, 99 Soviet mathematicians and scientists signed a protest letter to the Soviet officials demanding his release.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}}<ref name="Zdravkovska"/>{{rp|221}} After a wave of protests, he was discharged and permitted to immigrate to the USA where he obtained the position of professor of mathematics.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}} In 2010, [[Alexander Magalif]], who hospitalized Esenin-Volpin, recollected that he had seen a little mark made by a pencil in the corner of the referral to treatment of Esenin-Volpin: "not to discharge from the hospital without coordination with KGB."<ref name="Магалиф"/>


=== Yuli Daniel ===
=== Yuli Daniel ===
In 1965, the writer [[Yuli Daniel]] was arrested due to his satirical anti-Stalinist works and outspoken protest at the human rights abuse in the USSR.<ref name="Kosserev">{{cite journal|last1=Kosserev|first1=Igor|last2=Crawshaw|first2=Ralph|title=Medicine and the Gulag|journal=[[BMJ]]|year=1994|month=24 December|volume=309|issue=6970|pages=1726–1730|pmc=2542687|accessdate=21 April 2011|pmid=7820004}}</ref> Daniel was kept in a mental hospital of the Gulag where he was refused medical treatment in order to destroy his will.<ref name="Kosserev"/>
In 1965, the writer [[Yuli Daniel]] was arrested due to his satirical anti-Stalinist works and outspoken protest at the human rights abuse in the USSR.<ref name="Kosserev"/> Daniel was kept in a mental hospital of the Gulag where he was refused medical treatment in order to destroy his will.<ref name="Kosserev"/>


=== Viktor Fainberg ===
=== Viktor Fainberg ===
[[File:St Petersburg Psychiatric Hospital of Specialized Type with Intense Observation.JPG|230px|thumb|left|The [[Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital of Prison Type of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs]] in the past (The St Petersburg Psychiatric Hospital of Specialized Type with Intense Observation at the present time)]]
[[File:St Petersburg Psychiatric Hospital of Specialized Type with Intense Observation.JPG|230px|thumb|left|The [[Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital of Prison Type of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs]] in the past (The St Petersburg Psychiatric Hospital of Specialized Type with Intense Observation at the present time)]]
[[Viktor Fainberg]] was one of the seven persons who demonstrated on [[Red Square]] in Moscow in 1968 against the intervention into [[Czechoslovakia]].<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=9789042025851|pages= |url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}} He was committed for compulsory treatment to the Special Psychiatric Hospital in [[Leningrad]] where he was confined for five years.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} During his confinement, a psychiatrist working in the establishment, Marina Voikhanskaya, fell in love with him and helped him as much as she could.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} After his discharge, they married and emigrated to the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} When they had divorced, Viktor moved to [[Paris]] and Marina remained in the United Kingdom.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}}
[[Viktor Fainberg]] was one of the seven persons who demonstrated on [[Red Square]] in Moscow in 1968 against the intervention into [[Czechoslovakia]].<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} He was committed for compulsory treatment to the Special Psychiatric Hospital in [[Leningrad]] where he was confined for five years.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} During his confinement, a psychiatrist working in the establishment, Marina Voikhanskaya, fell in love with him and helped him as much as she could.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} After his discharge, they married and emigrated to the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}} When they had divorced, Viktor moved to [[Paris]] and Marina remained in the United Kingdom.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|77}}


=== AGDHR members ===
=== AGDHR members ===
In 1968, the human rights movement in the USSR focused directly on Soviet political psychiatry, organizing public protests and writing international bodies.<ref name="Rejali"/>{{rp|395}} In 1969, a group of about 14 activists including [[Sergei Kovalyov]], a future Russian human rights ombudsman, constituted the Action Group for the Defence of Human Rights in the USSR.<ref name="Hegarty">{{cite book|last1=Hegarty|first1=Angela|last2=Leonard|first2=Siobhan|title=A human rights: an agenda for the 21st century|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1859413935|page=343|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-Mg_xkrtPocC&pg=PA343}}</ref>{{rp|343}} The group composed a first ''[[samizdat]]'' (self-published) human rights bulletin, the ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]''.<ref name="Hegarty"/>{{rp|343}} Among the members of the Action Group were individuals who subsequently fell victim to psychiatric abuse themselves: the poetess [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] who in 1968 demonstrated on [[Red Square]] against bringing Soviet tanks into [[Czechoslovakia]]; [[Vladimir Borisov]] who later was one of the founders of the independent labor movement in the Soviet Union; [[Vladimir Maltsev]], a translator; and [[Leonid Plyushch]], a Ukrainian [[cyberneticist]] who was committed to the Special Psychiatric Hospital of [[Dnepropetrovsk]] and was awfully tortured with [[neuroleptics]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}}
In 1968, the human rights movement in the USSR focused directly on Soviet political psychiatry, organizing public protests and writing international bodies.<ref name="Rejali"/>{{rp|395}} In 1969, a group of about 14 activists including [[Sergei Kovalyov]], a future Russian human rights ombudsman, constituted the Action Group for the Defence of Human Rights in the USSR.<ref name="Hegarty"/>{{rp|343}} The group composed a first ''[[samizdat]]'' (self-published) human rights bulletin, the ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]''.<ref name="Hegarty"/>{{rp|343}} Among the members of the Action Group were individuals who subsequently fell victim to psychiatric abuse themselves: the poetess [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] who in 1968 demonstrated on [[Red Square]] against bringing Soviet tanks into [[Czechoslovakia]]; [[Vladimir Borisov]] who later was one of the founders of the independent labor movement in the Soviet Union; [[Vladimir Maltsev]], a translator; and [[Leonid Plyushch]], a Ukrainian [[cyberneticist]] who was committed to the Special Psychiatric Hospital of [[Dnepropetrovsk]] and was awfully tortured with [[neuroleptics]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|141}}


=== Valeria Novodvorskaya ===
=== Valeria Novodvorskaya ===
[[Image:Valeriya Novodvorskaya3.jpg|right|130px|thumb|[[Valeriya Novodvorskaya]] (b. 1950), a Russian [[politician]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
[[Image:Valeriya Novodvorskaya3.jpg|right|130px|thumb|[[Valeriya Novodvorskaya]] (b. 1950), a Russian [[politician]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
In 1968, [[Valeria Novodvorskaya]] created an underground student organization whose purpose was to overthrow the Soviet state.<ref name="McCauley">{{cite book|last=McCauley|first=Martin|title=Gorbachev|year=1998|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=058243758X|page=98|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CL3WAnYt3aAC&pg=PA98}}</ref>{{rp|98}} On 5 December 1969, she was arrested in the [[Palace of Congresses]], where before the start of a performance of the opera ''October'' she was handing out and scattering leaflets written in verse form until she was approached by KGB men.<ref name="Reddaway">{{cite book|last=Reddaway|first=Peter|title=Uncensored Russia: protest and dissent in the Soviet Union: the unofficial Moscow journal, a Chronicle of current events|year=1972|publisher=American Heritage Press|page=109|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LElpAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|109}} She was later sentenced to indefinite detention in the prison psychiatric hospital in [[Kazan]].<ref name="Reddaway"/>{{rp|109}} Her experience in this hospital was described<ref name="Новодворская">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Новодворская|first=Валерия|title=По ту сторону отчаяния|year=1993|publisher=Изд-во «Новости»|location=Москва|url=http://www.lib.ru/MEMUARY/NOWODWORSKAYA/novodvorskaja.txt}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the [[Maxim Moshkov's Library]] by [http://www.lib.ru/MEMUARY/NOWODWORSKAYA/novodvorskaja.txt click])</ref> in her largest collection of writings entitled ''Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya'' (''Beyond Despair'').<ref name="Reddaway 2001">{{cite book|last1=Reddaway|first1=Peter|last2=Glinski|first2=Dmitri|title=The tragedy of Russia's reforms: market bolshevism against democracy|year=2001|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|isbn=1929223064|page=140|url=http://books.google.com/books?d=VEh9geWgbjgC&pg=PA140}}</ref>{{rp|140}} Novodvorskaya was also committed in mental hospital later, in 1978 as a member of the Free Interprofessional Association of Workers<ref name="Karatnycky">{{cite book|last1=Karatnycky|first1=Adrian|last2=Motyl|first2=Alexander|last3=Sturmthal|first3=Adolf|title=Workers' rights, East and West: a comparative study of trade union and workers' rights in Western democracies and Eastern Europe|year=1980|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0878558675|pages=55–58|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gLkrzVrWSE0C&pg=PA55}}</ref>{{rp|55}} and in September 1990 as a person responsible "for insulting President"; at that time she was discharged after the 1991 [[putsch]].<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Andrew|last2=Bachkatov|first2=Nina|title=Russia Revised: Alphabetical Key to the Soviet Debacle and the New Republics|year=1992|publisher=Deutsch|isbn=0233987835|page=156|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=brUjAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|156}}
In 1968, [[Valeria Novodvorskaya]] created an underground student organization whose purpose was to overthrow the Soviet state.<ref name="McCauley"/>{{rp|98}} On 5 December 1969, she was arrested in the [[Palace of Congresses]], where before the start of a performance of the opera ''October'' she was handing out and scattering leaflets written in verse form until she was approached by KGB men.<ref name="Reddaway"/>{{rp|109}} She was later sentenced to indefinite detention in the prison psychiatric hospital in [[Kazan]].<ref name="Reddaway"/>{{rp|109}} Her experience in this hospital was described<ref name="Новодворская">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Новодворская|first=Валерия|title=По ту сторону отчаяния|year=1993|publisher=Изд-во «Новости»|location=Москва|url=http://www.lib.ru/MEMUARY/NOWODWORSKAYA/novodvorskaja.txt}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the [[Maxim Moshkov's Library]] by [http://www.lib.ru/MEMUARY/NOWODWORSKAYA/novodvorskaja.txt click])</ref> in her largest collection of writings entitled ''Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya'' (''Beyond Despair'').<ref name="Reddaway 2001"/>{{rp|140}} Novodvorskaya was also committed in mental hospital later, in 1978 as a member of the Free Interprofessional Association of Workers<ref name="Karatnycky"/>{{rp|55}} and in September 1990 as a person responsible "for insulting President"; at that time she was discharged after the 1991 [[putsch]].<ref name="Wilson"/>{{rp|156}}


In the early 1990s, psychiatrists of the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] and G. N. Sotsevich proved the absence of mental illness in Novodvorskaya.<ref name="20-летие"/>
In the early 1990s, psychiatrists of the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] and G. N. Sotsevich proved the absence of mental illness in Novodvorskaya.<ref name="20-летие"/>
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=== Natalya Gorbanevskaya ===
=== Natalya Gorbanevskaya ===
[[File:C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg|130px|thumb|left|[[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] (b. 1936), a Russian poetess and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
[[File:C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg|130px|thumb|left|[[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] (b. 1936), a Russian poetess and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
After the [[1968 Red Square demonstration|Red Square demonstration]] against the invasion into [[Czechoslovakia]], August 1968 saw the arrest of [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] well known in the West due to her book ''Red Square at Noon'' describing the demonstration.<ref name="Shaw">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=David|last2=Bloch|first2=Sidney|last3=Vickers|first3=Ann|title=Psychiatry and the state|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1972|month=2 November|volume=56|issue=818|pages=258–261|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4hD8LSniK3MC&pg=PA258|accessdate=20 February 2011}}</ref> A few days later, the Serbsky Institute found her non-accountable and made diagnosis of "deep psychopathy—the presence of mild, chronic schizophrenic process cannot be excluded."<ref name="Shaw"/> She was allowed to return to the care of her mother.<ref name="Shaw"/> In November 1969, a psychiatric commission again examined her, diagnosed "psychopathic personality with symptoms of hysteria and a tendency to decompensation", but considered that psychiatric hospitalization was not required.<ref name="Shaw"/> A month later, she was again arrested and sent to the Serbky Institute for psychiatric examination in April 1970.<ref name="Shaw"/> The investigating commission chaired by Morozov found her non-responsible and suffering from "chronic, mental illness in the form of schizophrenia."<ref name="Shaw"/> The commission found in her the presence of changes in the thinking processes and in the critical and emotional faculties characteristic of schizophrenia.<ref name="Shaw"/> It was concluded that Gorbanevskaya took part in the Red Square demonstration in a state of the mental disease.<ref name="Shaw"/>
After the [[1968 Red Square demonstration|Red Square demonstration]] against the invasion into [[Czechoslovakia]], August 1968 saw the arrest of [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] well known in the West due to her book ''Red Square at Noon'' describing the demonstration.<ref name="Shaw"/> A few days later, the Serbsky Institute found her non-accountable and made diagnosis of "deep psychopathy—the presence of mild, chronic schizophrenic process cannot be excluded."<ref name="Shaw"/> She was allowed to return to the care of her mother.<ref name="Shaw"/> In November 1969, a psychiatric commission again examined her, diagnosed "psychopathic personality with symptoms of hysteria and a tendency to decompensation", but considered that psychiatric hospitalization was not required.<ref name="Shaw"/> A month later, she was again arrested and sent to the Serbky Institute for psychiatric examination in April 1970.<ref name="Shaw"/> The investigating commission chaired by Morozov found her non-responsible and suffering from "chronic, mental illness in the form of schizophrenia."<ref name="Shaw"/> The commission found in her the presence of changes in the thinking processes and in the critical and emotional faculties characteristic of schizophrenia.<ref name="Shaw"/> It was concluded that Gorbanevskaya took part in the Red Square demonstration in a state of the mental disease.<ref name="Shaw"/>


=== Zhores Medvedev ===
=== Zhores Medvedev ===
On 29 May 1970, [[Zhores Medvedev]], an internationally respected and prominent scientist, was forcibly taken from his apartment in [[Obninsk]] and committed to a mental hospital where he was held, without legitimate medical justification, until 17 June 1970.<ref name="Leichter">{{cite book|last=Leichter|first=Howard|title=A comparative approach to policy analysis: health care policy in four nations|year=1979|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=0521296013|page=232|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cfI6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232}}</ref>{{rp|232}} The leadership was instantly faced with the action of strong collective protest initiated by top Soviet scientists including [[Igor Tamm]] and [[Pyotr Kapitsa]].<ref name=Jacobson>{{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Julius|title=Soviet communism and the socialist vision|year=1972|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0878550054|page=22|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rYFbo5FsnnAC&pg=PA22}}</ref>{{rp|22}} Medvedev's release was achieved only after intense pressure from intellectuals and scientists both within and outside of the USSR.<ref name="Leichter"/>{{rp|232}} He was largely hospitalized because of the publication abroad of his book of [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref name="Ziolkowski">{{cite book|last=Ziolkowski|first=Margaret|title=Literary exorcisms of Stalinism: Russian writers and the Soviet past|year=1998|publisher=Camden House|isbn=1571131795|page=95|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x0bPvO0U-ScC&pg=PA95}}</ref>{{rp|95}} In widely circulated books, Zhores Medvedev had criticized the "geneticist" Lysenko and had also expressed his straightforward disagreement with restrictions on communication with scientists abroad.<ref name="Wing">{{cite book|last1=Wing|first1=John|last2=Mechanic|first2=David|title=Reasoning about Madness|year=2009|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=1412810574|page=178|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u7qvmgGdNAsC&pg=PA178}}</ref>{{rp|178}} He was removed from his position as head of a laboratory at the Institute of Medical Radiology and this removal was illegal, he said.<ref name="Wing"/>{{rp|178}} The diagnosis in the case-notes was "incipient schizophrenia," the diagnosis made by the psychiatric commission was "psychopathic personality with paranoid tendencies."<ref name="Wing"/>{{rp|178}} What happened to Medvedev was not a separate incident; rather, it was part, in Medvedev's words, of "the dangerous tendency of using psychiatry for political purposes, the exploitation of medicine in an alien role as a means of intimidation and punishment — a new and illegal way of isolating people for their views and convictions."<ref name="Leichter"/>{{rp|232}} This experience was reflected in Zhores Medvedev's and [[Roy Medvedev]]'s book ''A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union'' published by Macmillan in London in 1971.<ref name="Medvedev">{{cite book|last1=Medvedev|first1=Žores|authorlink1=Zhores Medvedev|last2=Medvedev|first2=Roi|authorlink2=Roy Medvedev|title=A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union|year=1971|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=X3KpGwAACAAJ}}</ref>
On 29 May 1970, [[Zhores Medvedev]], an internationally respected and prominent scientist, was forcibly taken from his apartment in [[Obninsk]] and committed to a mental hospital where he was held, without legitimate medical justification, until 17 June 1970.<ref name="Leichter"/>{{rp|232}} The leadership was instantly faced with the action of strong collective protest initiated by top Soviet scientists including [[Igor Tamm]] and [[Pyotr Kapitsa]].<ref name="Jacobson"/>{{rp|22}} Medvedev's release was achieved only after intense pressure from intellectuals and scientists both within and outside of the USSR.<ref name="Leichter"/>{{rp|232}} He was largely hospitalized because of the publication abroad of his book of [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref name="Ziolkowski"/>{{rp|95}} In widely circulated books, Zhores Medvedev had criticized the "geneticist" Lysenko and had also expressed his straightforward disagreement with restrictions on communication with scientists abroad.<ref name="Wing"/>{{rp|178}} He was removed from his position as head of a laboratory at the Institute of Medical Radiology and this removal was illegal, he said.<ref name="Wing"/>{{rp|178}} The diagnosis in the case-notes was "incipient schizophrenia," the diagnosis made by the psychiatric commission was "psychopathic personality with paranoid tendencies."<ref name="Wing"/>{{rp|178}} What happened to Medvedev was not a separate incident; rather, it was part, in Medvedev's words, of "the dangerous tendency of using psychiatry for political purposes, the exploitation of medicine in an alien role as a means of intimidation and punishment — a new and illegal way of isolating people for their views and convictions."<ref name="Leichter"/>{{rp|232}} This experience was reflected in Zhores Medvedev's and [[Roy Medvedev]]'s book ''A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union'' published by Macmillan in London in 1971.<ref name="Medvedev"/>


=== Andrei Sakharov ===
=== Andrei Sakharov ===
In 1971, renowned Soviet physicist [[Andrei Sakharov]] supported a protest of two political prisoners, V. Fainberg and V. Borisov, who announced a [[hunger strike]] against "compulsory therapeutic treatment with medications injurious to mental activity" in a Leningrad psychiatric institution.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ac2sakh.html Sakharov's Telegram] Revelations from the Russian Archives at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref> In 1984, after publishing an article by Andrei Sakharov in the [[United States]] urging a buildup of nuclear weapons in the West, Soviet officials declared him "a talented, but sick man."<ref name="Christenson">{{cite book|last=Christenson|first=Ron|title=Political trials: Gordian knots in the law|year=1999|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0765804735|page=29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nV2a3E-S6LAC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} When sent into internal exile to [[Gorky (city)|Gorky]] "for his own peace of mind," he received the due medical attention: "Soviet medics are taking all necessary measures to restore his health."<ref name="Christenson"/>{{rp|29}}
In 1971, renowned Soviet physicist [[Andrei Sakharov]] supported a protest of two political prisoners, V. Fainberg and V. Borisov, who announced a [[hunger strike]] against "compulsory therapeutic treatment with medications injurious to mental activity" in a Leningrad psychiatric institution.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ac2sakh.html Sakharov's Telegram] Revelations from the Russian Archives at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref> In 1984, after publishing an article by Andrei Sakharov in the [[United States]] urging a buildup of nuclear weapons in the West, Soviet officials declared him "a talented, but sick man."<ref name="Christenson"/>{{rp|29}} When sent into internal exile to [[Gorky (city)|Gorky]] "for his own peace of mind," he received the due medical attention: "Soviet medics are taking all necessary measures to restore his health."<ref name="Christenson"/>{{rp|29}}


=== Viktor Nekipelov ===
=== Viktor Nekipelov ===
[[File:Nekipelov.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Viktor Nekipelov]] (1928–1989), a member of the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]], writer, and political prisoner]]
[[File:Nekipelov.jpg|130px|thumb|right|[[Viktor Nekipelov]] (1928–1989), a member of the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]], writer, and political prisoner]]
[[Viktor Nekipelov]], a well-known dissident poet, was arrested in 1973, sent to the Section 4 of the Serbsky Institute of Forensic Psychiatry for psychiatric evaluation, which lasted from 15 January to 12 March 1974, was judged sane (which he was), tried, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.<ref name="Lader">{{cite journal|last=Lader|first=Malcolm|title=Prisoners of psychiatry|journal=[[The British Medical Journal]]|year=1980|month=26 July|volume=281|issue=6235|pages=298–299|pmc=1713856|accessdate=4 February 2011}}</ref> In 1976, he published in [[samizdat]] his book ''Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute''<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|147}} based on his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute<ref name="Jena">{{cite book|last=Jena|first=S.P.K.|title=Behaviour Therapy: Techniques, Research and Applications|year=2008|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=0761936246|page=86|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TATbAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|86}} and translated into English in 1980.<ref name="Nekipelov">{{cite book|last=Nekipelov|first=Viktor|authorlink=Viktor Nekipelov|title=Institute of fools: notes from the Serbsky|year=1980|publisher=Farrar, Straus, Giroux|isbn=0374177031|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QUiBQgAACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Keefer">{{cite book|last1=Keefer|first1=Janice|last2=Pavlychko|first2=Solomea|title=Two lands, new visions: stories from Canada and Ukraine|year=1998|publisher=Coteau Books|isbn=1550501348|page=312|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c3BTRn9jausC&pg=PA312}}</ref>{{rp|312}} In this account, he wrote compassionately, engagingly, and observantly of the doctors and other patients; most of the latters were ordinary criminals feigning insanity in order to be sent to a mental hospital, because hospital was a "cushy number" as against prison camps.<ref name="Lader"/> According to the President of the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] [[Yuri Savenko]], Nekipelov's book is a highly dramatic humane document, a fair story about the nest of Soviet punitive psychiatry, a mirror that psychiatrists always need to look into.<ref name="Институт"/> However according to Malcolm Lader, this book as an indictment of the Serbsky Institute hardly rises above tittle-tattle and gossip, and Nekipelov destroys his own credibility by presenting no real evidence but invariably putting the most sinister connotation on events.<ref name="Lader"/> After publishing his book, he was sentenced to the maximum punishment for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" of seven years in a labour camp and then five years in internal exile.<ref name="Lader"/>
[[Viktor Nekipelov]], a well-known dissident poet, was arrested in 1973, sent to the Section 4 of the Serbsky Institute of Forensic Psychiatry for psychiatric evaluation, which lasted from 15 January to 12 March 1974, was judged sane (which he was), tried, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.<ref name="Lader"/> In 1976, he published in [[samizdat]] his book ''Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute''<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|147}} based on his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute<ref name="Jena"/>{{rp|86}} and translated into English in 1980.<ref name="Nekipelov"/><ref name="Keefer"/>{{rp|312}} In this account, he wrote compassionately, engagingly, and observantly of the doctors and other patients; most of the latters were ordinary criminals feigning insanity in order to be sent to a mental hospital, because hospital was a "cushy number" as against prison camps.<ref name="Lader"/> According to the President of the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] [[Yuri Savenko]], Nekipelov's book is a highly dramatic humane document, a fair story about the nest of Soviet punitive psychiatry, a mirror that psychiatrists always need to look into.<ref name="Институт"/> However according to Malcolm Lader, this book as an indictment of the Serbsky Institute hardly rises above tittle-tattle and gossip, and Nekipelov destroys his own credibility by presenting no real evidence but invariably putting the most sinister connotation on events.<ref name="Lader"/> After publishing his book, he was sentenced to the maximum punishment for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" of seven years in a labour camp and then five years in internal exile.<ref name="Lader"/>


=== AFTU members ===
=== AFTU members ===
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=== Soviet psychiatric abuse exposed ===
=== Soviet psychiatric abuse exposed ===
[[Image:Vladimir Bukovsky small.jpg|right|150px|thumb|[[Vladimir Bukovsky]] (b. 1942), a British [[neurophysiologist]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
[[Image:Vladimir Bukovsky small.jpg|right|150px|thumb|[[Vladimir Bukovsky]] (b. 1942), a British [[neurophysiologist]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
In 1971, [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] smuggled to the West a file of 150 pages documenting the political abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|496}} The documents were photocopies of forensic reports on prominent Soviet dissidents.<ref name="Soviets Left WPA">{{cite journal|last=|first=|title=Soviets Left WPA Under Expulsion Threat|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=19 November|volume=45|issue=22|page=11|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/22/11.2|accessdate=3 February 2011}}</ref> These documents were attended with a letter by Bukovsky<ref name="Казнимые">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|title=Казнимые сумасшествием: Сборник документальных материалов о психиатрических преследованиях инакомыслящих в СССР / Редакторы: А. Артемова, Л. Рар, М. Славинский|year=1971|publisher=Посев|location=Франкфурт-на-Майне|pages=|url=http://antisoviet.narod.ru/samizdat_kaznim.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|470}} requesting Western psychiatrists to explore the six cases documented in the file and tell whether these persons should be hospitalized or not.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}} The documents were sent by Bukovsky to ''[[The Times]]'' and, when translated by "The Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Medical Hospitals", were examined by forty-four psychiatrists from the Department of Psychiatry, [[Sheffield University]].<ref name="Spector">{{cite book|last1=Spector|first1=Malcolm|last2=Kitsuse|first2=John|title=Constructing social problems|year=2001|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0765807165|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZhiQcVJepyUC&pg=PA101}}</ref>{{rp|101}} The psychiatrists described the documents in ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]'' of August 1971<ref name="Richter">{{cite journal|last=Richter|first=Derek|title=Political Dissenters in Mental Hospitals|journal=[[The British Journal of Psychiatry]]|year=1971|month=August|volume=119|issue=549|pages=225–226|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/119/549/225}}</ref> and wrote a letter to ''The Times''.<ref name="Spector"/>{{rp|101}} In this letter published on 16 September 1971, they reported that four of the six dissidents manifested no signs or history of mental disease, and the other two had minor psychiatric problems many years ago, quite removed from the events related to their internment.<ref name="Spector"/>{{rp|101}} The group of British psychiatrists concluded: "It seems to us that the diagnoses on the six people were made purely in consequence of actions in which they were exercising fundamental freedoms…"<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}} They recommended discussing the issue in the course of the forthcoming [[World Psychiatric Association]] (WPA) World Congress in [[Mexico]] in November 1971.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}}
In 1971, [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] smuggled to the West a file of 150 pages documenting the political abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|496}} The documents were photocopies of forensic reports on prominent Soviet dissidents.<ref name="Soviets Left WPA"/> These documents were attended with a letter by Bukovsky<ref name="Казнимые">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|title=Казнимые сумасшествием: Сборник документальных материалов о психиатрических преследованиях инакомыслящих в СССР / Редакторы: А. Артемова, Л. Рар, М. Славинский|year=1971|publisher=Посев|location=Франкфурт-на-Майне|pages=|url=http://antisoviet.narod.ru/samizdat_kaznim.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|470}} requesting Western psychiatrists to explore the six cases documented in the file and tell whether these persons should be hospitalized or not.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}} The documents were sent by Bukovsky to ''[[The Times]]'' and, when translated by "The Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Medical Hospitals", were examined by forty-four psychiatrists from the Department of Psychiatry, [[Sheffield University]].<ref name="Spector"/>{{rp|101}} The psychiatrists described the documents in ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]'' of August 1971<ref name="Richter"/> and wrote a letter to ''The Times''.<ref name="Spector"/>{{rp|101}} In this letter published on 16 September 1971, they reported that four of the six dissidents manifested no signs or history of mental disease, and the other two had minor psychiatric problems many years ago, quite removed from the events related to their internment.<ref name="Spector"/>{{rp|101}} The group of British psychiatrists concluded: "It seems to us that the diagnoses on the six people were made purely in consequence of actions in which they were exercising fundamental freedoms…"<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}} They recommended discussing the issue in the course of the forthcoming [[World Psychiatric Association]] (WPA) World Congress in [[Mexico]] in November 1971.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}}


=== The Congress in Mexico City ===
=== The Congress in Mexico City ===
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The failure to debate the issue opened the door for Soviet authorities to adjudge Bukovsky to 12 years of camp and exile, and to enlarge the use of psychiatry as a tool of repression.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}}
The failure to debate the issue opened the door for Soviet authorities to adjudge Bukovsky to 12 years of camp and exile, and to enlarge the use of psychiatry as a tool of repression.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|497}}


In January 1972, Bukovsky was convicted of spreading anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 70 of the [[RSFSR]] [[Criminal Code]], mainly on the ground that he had, with anti-Soviet intention, circulated false reports that mentally healthy political dissenters were incarcerated in mental hospitals and were subjected to abuse there.<ref name="Berman">{{cite book|last1=Berman|first1=Harold|last2=Spindler|first2=James|title=Soviet Criminal Law and Procedure; The Rsfsr Codes|year=1972|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674826361|page=11|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nx0gnXpMbnsC&pg=PA11}}</ref>{{rp|11}}
In January 1972, Bukovsky was convicted of spreading anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 70 of the [[RSFSR]] [[Criminal Code]], mainly on the ground that he had, with anti-Soviet intention, circulated false reports that mentally healthy political dissenters were incarcerated in mental hospitals and were subjected to abuse there.<ref name="Berman"/>{{rp|11}}


In 1974, Bukovsky and the incarcerated psychiatrist [[Semyon Gluzman]] wrote ''A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissenters'',<ref name="Bukovskiĭ">{{cite book|last1=Bukovskiĭ|first1=Vladimir|authorlink1=Vladimir Bukovsky|last2=Gluzman|first2=Semyon|authorlink2=Semyon Gluzman|title=A manual on psychiatry for dissidents|year=1976|publisher=printed by Keuffel and Esser|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=splGAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} [http://antology.igrunov.ru/authors/bukovsky/psychiatr.html ''A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissidents''] ("Пособие по психиатрии для инакомыслящих")</ref> in which they provided potential future victims of political psychiatry with instructions on how to behave during inquest in order to avoid being diagnosed as mentally sick.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|496}} The Manual focuses on how "the Soviet use of psychiatry as a punitive means is based upon the deliberate interpretation of [[heterodoxy]] (in one sense of the world) as a psychiatric problem."<ref name="A new campaign">{{cite journal|title=A new campaign against the political mind-benders|journal=[[New Scientist]] |year=1976|month=1 July|volume=71|issue= 1007|page=4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=m2fW4s6k4hEC&pg=PA4|accessdate=4 January 2011}}</ref> Semyon Gluzman, a first psychiatrist in the Soviet Union who openly opposed Soviet abuse of psychiatry against dissenters,<ref name="Landau">{{cite book|last=Landau|first=Eli|title=Semyon Gluzman: the first psychiatrist in the U.S.S.R. who openly opposed Soviet abuse of psychiatry against dissenters|year=1980}}</ref> was one of three authors of the document ''An In Absentia Psychiatric Opinion on the Case of P.G. Grigorenko''<ref name="Экспертиза Григоренко">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Расширенная судебно-психиатрическая заочная экспертиза по делу Григоренко Петра Григорьевича, 1907 г.р., украинца, жителя г. Москвы (восстановлено на основании копии Самиздата)|url=http://novosti.mif-ua.com/archive/issue-13928/article-13953/|accessdate=21 June 2011|newspaper=Новости медицины и фармации (329)|year=2010}}</ref><ref name="de Boer">{{cite book|last1=de Boer|first1=S.P.|last2=Driessen|first2=E.J.|last3=Verhaar|first3=H.L.|title=Biographical dictionary of dissidents in the Soviet Union, 1956–1975|year=1982|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9024725380|page=180|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1IQzecjGQX0C&pg=PA180}}</ref>{{rp|180}}<ref name="Schroeter">{{cite book|last=Schroeter|first=Leonard|title=The last exodus|year=1979|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=0295956852|page=324|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LOmBVENjK3sC&pg=PA324}}</ref>{{rp|324}} otherwise known as ''An In Absentia Forensic-psychiatric Report on P.G. Grigorenko''; this document started circulating in [[samizdat]] form in 1971<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}}<ref name="Bloch 1977">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Psychiatric terror: how Soviet psychiatry is used to suppress dissent|year=1977|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0465064884|pages=235, 328|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1jcQAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|235}}<ref name="News Items">{{cite journal|title=News Items: Dr Semyon Gluzman|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1981|volume=5|issue=2|page=36|doi=10.1192/pb.5.2.36|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/5/2/36.pdf|accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref> and was based on the medical record of Grigorenko<ref name="Schroeter"/>{{rp|324}} who spoke against the human rights abuses in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Sabshin">{{cite book|last=Sabshin|first=Melvin|title=Changing American psychiatry: a personal perspective|year=2008|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=1585623075|page=95|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=fgCUrffGCfcC&pg=PA95}}</ref>{{rp|95}} Gluzman came to the conclusion that Grigorenko was mentally sane and had been taken to mental hospitals for political reasons.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Gluzman was forced to serve seven years in labor camps and three years in Siberian exile for refusing to diagnose Grigorenko as having the mental illness.<ref name="Sabshin"/>{{rp|95}}
In 1974, Bukovsky and the incarcerated psychiatrist [[Semyon Gluzman]] wrote ''A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissenters'',<ref name="Bukovskiĭ">{{cite book|last1=Bukovskiĭ|first1=Vladimir|authorlink1=Vladimir Bukovsky|last2=Gluzman|first2=Semyon|authorlink2=Semyon Gluzman|title=A manual on psychiatry for dissidents|year=1976|publisher=printed by Keuffel and Esser|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=splGAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} [http://antology.igrunov.ru/authors/bukovsky/psychiatr.html ''A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissidents''] ("Пособие по психиатрии для инакомыслящих")</ref> in which they provided potential future victims of political psychiatry with instructions on how to behave during inquest in order to avoid being diagnosed as mentally sick.<ref name="Helmchen"/>{{rp|496}} The Manual focuses on how "the Soviet use of psychiatry as a punitive means is based upon the deliberate interpretation of [[heterodoxy]] (in one sense of the world) as a psychiatric problem."<ref name="A new campaign"/> Semyon Gluzman, a first psychiatrist in the Soviet Union who openly opposed Soviet abuse of psychiatry against dissenters,<ref name="Landau"/> was one of three authors of the document ''An In Absentia Psychiatric Opinion on the Case of P.G. Grigorenko''<ref name="Экспертиза Григоренко">{{ru icon}} {{cite news|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Расширенная судебно-психиатрическая заочная экспертиза по делу Григоренко Петра Григорьевича, 1907 г.р., украинца, жителя г. Москвы (восстановлено на основании копии Самиздата)|url=http://novosti.mif-ua.com/archive/issue-13928/article-13953/|accessdate=21 June 2011|newspaper=Новости медицины и фармации (329)|year=2010}}</ref><ref name="de Boer"/>{{rp|180}}<ref name="Schroeter"/>{{rp|324}} otherwise known as ''An In Absentia Forensic-psychiatric Report on P.G. Grigorenko''; this document started circulating in [[samizdat]] form in 1971<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}}<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|235}}<ref name="News Items"/> and was based on the medical record of Grigorenko<ref name="Schroeter"/>{{rp|324}} who spoke against the human rights abuses in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Sabshin"/>{{rp|95}} Gluzman came to the conclusion that Grigorenko was mentally sane and had been taken to mental hospitals for political reasons.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Gluzman was forced to serve seven years in labor camps and three years in Siberian exile for refusing to diagnose Grigorenko as having the mental illness.<ref name="Sabshin"/>{{rp|95}}


In December 1976, in his eleventh year of psychiatric hospitals and prison camps, Bukovsky was exchanged by the Soviet government for the imprisoned Chilean Communist leader [[Luis Corvalán]]<ref name="Laird">{{cite book|last1=Laird|first1=Robbin|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Erik|title=Soviet foreign policy in a changing world|year=1986|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0202241661|page=79|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1TDa1YNhSjgC&pg=PA79}}</ref>{{rp|79}} at [[Zürich]] airport and, after a short stay in [[Holland]], took up refuge in [[Great Britain]] where later moved from [[London]] to [[Cambridge]] for his studies in biology.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|7}} Voluntary and involuntary emigration allowed the authorities to rid themselves of many political active intellectuals including writers [[Valentin Turchin]], [[Georgi Vladimov]], [[Vladimir Voinovich]], [[Lev Kopelev]], [[Vladimir Emelyanovich Maximov|Vladimir Maximov]], [[Naum Korzhavin]], [[Vasily Aksyonov]] and others.<ref name="Shlapentokh">{{cite book|last=Shlapentokh|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Shlapentokh|title=Soviet intellectuals and political power: the post-Stalin era|year=1990|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1850432848|page=194|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC&pg=PA194}}</ref>{{rp|194}}
In December 1976, in his eleventh year of psychiatric hospitals and prison camps, Bukovsky was exchanged by the Soviet government for the imprisoned Chilean Communist leader [[Luis Corvalán]]<ref name="Laird"/>{{rp|79}} at [[Zürich]] airport and, after a short stay in [[Holland]], took up refuge in [[Great Britain]] where later moved from [[London]] to [[Cambridge]] for his studies in biology.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|7}} Voluntary and involuntary emigration allowed the authorities to rid themselves of many political active intellectuals including writers [[Valentin Turchin]], [[Georgi Vladimov]], [[Vladimir Voinovich]], [[Lev Kopelev]], [[Vladimir Emelyanovich Maximov|Vladimir Maximov]], [[Naum Korzhavin]], [[Vasily Aksyonov]] and others.<ref name="Shlapentokh"/>{{rp|194}}


The appeal made by Bukovsky in 1971 caused the formation of the first groups to campaign against the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} In [[France]], a group of doctors constituted the "[[Committee against the Special Psychiatric Hospitals in the USSR]]," while in [[Great Britain]] a "Working Commission on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals" was created.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} Among its founding members were [[Peter Reddaway]], a [[Sovietologist]] and lecturer at the [[London School of Economics and Political Science]], and [[Sidney Bloch]], a South-African born psychiatrist.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} In September 1975, there was formed the "[[Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse]]" (CAPA),<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|328}} an organization constituted as the British section of the [[Initiating Committee Against Abuses of Psychiatry for Political Purposes]] and composed of psychiatrists, other doctors, and laymen.<ref name="A new campaign"/> In July 1976 in [[Trafalgar Square]], CAPA held a rally against the abuse of psychiatry in the USSR.<ref name="A new campaign"/> In 1978, Royal College of Psychiatrists established the Special Committee on abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Calloway"/>{{rp|223}} 20 December 1980 saw the formation in [[Paris]] of the [[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]] (IAPUP) whose first secretary was Gérard Bles of France.<ref name="Bloch 1985">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse: the shadow over world psychiatry|year=1985|publisher=Westview Press|page=273|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rgc1AAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|273}}
The appeal made by Bukovsky in 1971 caused the formation of the first groups to campaign against the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} In [[France]], a group of doctors constituted the "[[Committee against the Special Psychiatric Hospitals in the USSR]]," while in [[Great Britain]] a "Working Commission on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals" was created.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} Among its founding members were [[Peter Reddaway]], a [[Sovietologist]] and lecturer at the [[London School of Economics and Political Science]], and [[Sidney Bloch]], a South-African born psychiatrist.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} In September 1975, there was formed the "[[Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse]]" (CAPA),<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|328}} an organization constituted as the British section of the [[Initiating Committee Against Abuses of Psychiatry for Political Purposes]] and composed of psychiatrists, other doctors, and laymen.<ref name="A new campaign"/> In July 1976 in [[Trafalgar Square]], CAPA held a rally against the abuse of psychiatry in the USSR.<ref name="A new campaign"/> In 1978, Royal College of Psychiatrists established the Special Committee on abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Calloway"/>{{rp|223}} 20 December 1980 saw the formation in [[Paris]] of the [[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]] (IAPUP) whose first secretary was Gérard Bles of France.<ref name="Bloch 1985"/>{{rp|273}}


=== The Honolulu Congress ===
=== The Honolulu Congress ===
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Not long before the World Congress, a high-level conference was held in [[East Berlin]], and the Soviet psychiatric leaders met with colleagues from [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Poland]], the [[GDR]], [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]] to coordinate their positions.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} Much to the vexation of Georgi Morozov, the Romanians did not come to this meeting, while both the Hungarians and the Poles openly criticized the Soviet stance.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}}
Not long before the World Congress, a high-level conference was held in [[East Berlin]], and the Soviet psychiatric leaders met with colleagues from [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Poland]], the [[GDR]], [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]] to coordinate their positions.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} Much to the vexation of Georgi Morozov, the Romanians did not come to this meeting, while both the Hungarians and the Poles openly criticized the Soviet stance.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}}


However, all this activity of the Soviets cold not prevent the issue from dominating the Congress from the very outset.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} At the fist plenary session of the Congress, the introduction of the Declaration of Hawaii<ref name="Declaration in PB">{{cite journal|title=World Psychiatric Association: The Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Psychiatric Bulletin]]|year=1978|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12–13|doi=10.1192/pb.2.1.1|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/2/1/12.pdf|accessdate=19 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Declaration in JME">{{cite journal|title=Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|month=June|volume=4|issue=2|pages=71–73|pmid=671474|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1154636|year=1978}}</ref><ref name="Declaration in BMJ">{{cite journal|title=Declaration of Hawaii: Declaration adopted unanimously by the General Assembly of the World Psychiatric Association at the Sixth World Congress of Psychiatry, 1977|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|year=1977|month=5 November|volume=2|issue=6096|pages=1204–1205|pmid=589089|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1632165}}</ref> took place.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} This statement of ethical principles of psychiatry had been drafted by the Ethical Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee established in 1973 in response to the increasing number of protests against using psychiatry for non-medical reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} One of the principles stated in the Declaration was that a psychiatrist must not take part in compulsory psychiatric treatment in the absence of mental disease, and the Declaration also included other clauses which could be considered as heaving a bearing on the political abuse psychiatry.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} The General Assembly accepted the Declaration of Hawaii without difficulty, and without opposition by the Delegation of the Soviets.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} However, the Declaration was later criticized by [[Hanfried Helmchen]], who found its ethical guideline No 1 to be misleading and stated that when health, personal autonomy and growth—without referring to mental illness—are to be formulated as the direct aim of psychiatry, the menace of vast expansion of psychiatry will increase and that the renunciation of an illness concept appeared to be an essential source for the 'total psychiatrisation of everybody and everything' which was also deplored by Blomquist in his commentary.<ref name="Helmchen, 1978">{{cite journal|last=Helmchen|first=Hanfried|title=Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1978|month=December|volume=4|issue=4|pages=217–218|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1154691|pmid=33270}}</ref>
However, all this activity of the Soviets cold not prevent the issue from dominating the Congress from the very outset.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} At the fist plenary session of the Congress, the introduction of the Declaration of Hawaii<ref name="Declaration in PB"/><ref name="Declaration in JME"/><ref name="Declaration in BMJ"/> took place.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} This statement of ethical principles of psychiatry had been drafted by the Ethical Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee established in 1973 in response to the increasing number of protests against using psychiatry for non-medical reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} One of the principles stated in the Declaration was that a psychiatrist must not take part in compulsory psychiatric treatment in the absence of mental disease, and the Declaration also included other clauses which could be considered as heaving a bearing on the political abuse psychiatry.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} The General Assembly accepted the Declaration of Hawaii without difficulty, and without opposition by the Delegation of the Soviets.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} However, the Declaration was later criticized by [[Hanfried Helmchen]], who found its ethical guideline No 1 to be misleading and stated that when health, personal autonomy and growth—without referring to mental illness—are to be formulated as the direct aim of psychiatry, the menace of vast expansion of psychiatry will increase and that the renunciation of an illness concept appeared to be an essential source for the 'total psychiatrisation of everybody and everything' which was also deplored by Blomquist in his commentary.<ref name="Helmchen, 1978"/>


At the plenary session, an Ethics Committee was also established under the chairmanship of [[Costas Stephanis]] from [[Greece]]; among of the members was Marat Vartanyan from the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}}
At the plenary session, an Ethics Committee was also established under the chairmanship of [[Costas Stephanis]] from [[Greece]]; among of the members was Marat Vartanyan from the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}}
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The Soviet issue passed the General Assembly less easily.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} The Soviets did all possible to prove their point, and according to the report of the Soviet delegation, Marat Vartanyan had successfully prevented former Soviet political prisoner [[Leonid Plyushch]] from being registered as a delegate at the Congress and "anti-Soviet materials" from being spread in the main congress hall.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} In 1977 at the World Congress in Honolulu, Snezhnevsky again defended psychiatric practices used in his country.<ref name="Reich"/>
The Soviet issue passed the General Assembly less easily.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} The Soviets did all possible to prove their point, and according to the report of the Soviet delegation, Marat Vartanyan had successfully prevented former Soviet political prisoner [[Leonid Plyushch]] from being registered as a delegate at the Congress and "anti-Soviet materials" from being spread in the main congress hall.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|196}} In 1977 at the World Congress in Honolulu, Snezhnevsky again defended psychiatric practices used in his country.<ref name="Reich"/>


Two motions were put to the vote, a British one condemning the systematic political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR and an American one calling on the World Psychiatric Association to constitute a Review Committee to investigate the allegations of political abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} The British resolution passed with 90 to 88 votes<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} and only because the Poles did not come and the Russians, having been tardy in their dues payments, were not allowed to cast all votes allocated to them.<ref name="Reich"/> This resolution was the climax of a lengthy campaign in the West to expose the Soviet practice of committing some of its political and other dissenters to mental hospitals.<ref name="Soviets">{{cite journal|title=Soviets finally condemned for psychiatric malpractices…|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1977|month=8 September|volume=75|issue= 1068|page=571|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=167YFAML_o4C&pg=PA571|accessdate=4 January 2011}}</ref> The allegations, confirmed by some Soviet psychiatrists who have fled or emigrated to the West, induced the World Psychiatric Association to condemn the USSR for the "systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes."<ref name="Burns">{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=John|title=Moscow silencing psychiatry critics|journal=The New York Times|year=1981|month=26 July |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/26/world/moscow-silencing-psychiatry-critics.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=1 January 2011}}</ref> Kremlin spokesmen ignored the action as a provocation "by a handful of antipsychiatric and antisocial elements" and began a propaganda campaign to contradict the accusations.<ref name="Burns"/>
Two motions were put to the vote, a British one condemning the systematic political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR and an American one calling on the World Psychiatric Association to constitute a Review Committee to investigate the allegations of political abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} The British resolution passed with 90 to 88 votes<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} and only because the Poles did not come and the Russians, having been tardy in their dues payments, were not allowed to cast all votes allocated to them.<ref name="Reich"/> This resolution was the climax of a lengthy campaign in the West to expose the Soviet practice of committing some of its political and other dissenters to mental hospitals.<ref name="Soviets"/> The allegations, confirmed by some Soviet psychiatrists who have fled or emigrated to the West, induced the World Psychiatric Association to condemn the USSR for the "systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes."<ref name="Burns"/> Kremlin spokesmen ignored the action as a provocation "by a handful of antipsychiatric and antisocial elements" and began a propaganda campaign to contradict the accusations.<ref name="Burns"/>


The American resolution requesting to set up a Review Committee received a larger majority of votes, 121 votes against 66.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Snezhnevsky returned to Moscow wounded, with members of his delegation putting the blame for their defeat on the "[[Zionists]]."<ref name="Reich"/>
The American resolution requesting to set up a Review Committee received a larger majority of votes, 121 votes against 66.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Snezhnevsky returned to Moscow wounded, with members of his delegation putting the blame for their defeat on the "[[Zionists]]."<ref name="Reich"/>
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In December 1978, the Review Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Canadian psychiatrist [[Jean-Yves Gosselin]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} and, in August 1979, received the first complaints submitted by the British Royal College of Psychiatrists.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|199}} From the very first day, the Soviets refused to recognize its existence.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Originally they attempted to prevent its establishment, maintaining that it would divert the WPA from its major function, namely the exchange of scientific ideas.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} When the Review Committee was constituted, the Soviet society asserted overtly that they would not collaborate with the Review Committee, and they confirmed their stance in three letters, in which they claimed that the Review Committee was an "illegal formation," that it would continue not to acknowledge its existence and that no cooperation could be expected.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} That stance would remain unaltered over the years to come.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Finally, the Review Committee was largely made powerless when the President and General Secretary of the WPA decided to bypass it and began to communicate with the Soviets directly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}}
In December 1978, the Review Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Canadian psychiatrist [[Jean-Yves Gosselin]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} and, in August 1979, received the first complaints submitted by the British Royal College of Psychiatrists.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|199}} From the very first day, the Soviets refused to recognize its existence.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Originally they attempted to prevent its establishment, maintaining that it would divert the WPA from its major function, namely the exchange of scientific ideas.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} When the Review Committee was constituted, the Soviet society asserted overtly that they would not collaborate with the Review Committee, and they confirmed their stance in three letters, in which they claimed that the Review Committee was an "illegal formation," that it would continue not to acknowledge its existence and that no cooperation could be expected.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} That stance would remain unaltered over the years to come.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}} Finally, the Review Committee was largely made powerless when the President and General Secretary of the WPA decided to bypass it and began to communicate with the Soviets directly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|197}}


However, later, at the General Assembly during the World Congress in Vienna in 1983, the status and work of the Review Committee were discussed and it was resolved to allow the Committee to become statutory.<ref name="Kastrup">{{cite journal|last=Kastrup|first=Marianne|title=The work of the WPA Committee to Review the Abuse of Psychiatry|journal=World Psychiatry|year=2002|volume=1|issue=2|pages=126–127|pmid=16946875|pmc=1489863|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref> The General Assembly resolved further to change the Committee scope towards complaints about not only political but any abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Kastrup"/> As it was emphasized, the WPA is not a human rights organization and the Review Committee should only examine complaints about specific acts of abuse carried out by specific psychiatrists against specific persons.<ref name="Kastrup"/> The 1999 General Assembly modified the mandate of the Review Committee as follows: "The Review Committee shall review complaints and other issues and initiate investigations on the violations of the ethical guidelines for the practice of psychiatry as stated in the Declaration of Madrid and its additional guidelines in order to make recommendations to the Executive Committee as to any possible action."<ref name="Kastrup"/>
However, later, at the General Assembly during the World Congress in Vienna in 1983, the status and work of the Review Committee were discussed and it was resolved to allow the Committee to become statutory.<ref name="Kastrup"/> The General Assembly resolved further to change the Committee scope towards complaints about not only political but any abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Kastrup"/> As it was emphasized, the WPA is not a human rights organization and the Review Committee should only examine complaints about specific acts of abuse carried out by specific psychiatrists against specific persons.<ref name="Kastrup"/> The 1999 General Assembly modified the mandate of the Review Committee as follows: "The Review Committee shall review complaints and other issues and initiate investigations on the violations of the ethical guidelines for the practice of psychiatry as stated in the Declaration of Madrid and its additional guidelines in order to make recommendations to the Executive Committee as to any possible action."<ref name="Kastrup"/>


=== The Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes ===
=== The Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes ===
{{main|Moscow Helsinki Group}}
{{main|Moscow Helsinki Group}}
[[Image:Podrabinek-photo.JPG|right|130px|thumb|[[Alexandr Podrabinek]] (b. 1953), a Russian [[journalist]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
[[Image:Podrabinek-photo.JPG|right|130px|thumb|[[Alexandr Podrabinek]] (b. 1953), a Russian [[journalist]] and former Soviet [[human rights activist]] and [[political prisoner]]]]
In January 1977, [[Alexandr Podrabinek]] along with a 47 year-old self-educated worker [[Feliks Serebrov]], a 30 year-old computer programmer [[Vyacheslav Bakhmin]] and [[Irina Kuplun]] established the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The Commission was formally linked to the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} founded by [[Yuri Orlov]] along with ten others including [[Elena Bonner]] and [[Anatoly Shcharansky]] in 1976 to monitor Soviet compliance with the human rights provisions of the [[Helsinki Accords]].<ref name="Human Rights Watch">{{cite book|title=Human Rights Watch|year=1984|publisher=[[Americas Watch]]|page=67|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=liEPAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|67}} The commission was composed of five open members and several anonymous ones, including a few psychiatrists who, at great danger to themselves, conducted their own independent examinations of cases of alleged psychiatric abuse.<ref name="The spread">{{cite journal|title=The spread of Soviet suppression|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1978|month=25 May|volume=78|issue=1104|page=493|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=R0YnVUkTifgC&pg=PA493|accessdate=5 January 2011}}</ref> The leader of the commission was [[Alexandr Podrabinek]] who published a book ''Punitive Medicine''<ref name="The spread"/> containing a "white list" of two hundred of [[prisoners of conscience]] in Soviet mental hospitals and a "black list" of over one hundred medical staff and doctors who took part in committing people to psychiatric facilities for political reasons.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|15}}
In January 1977, [[Alexandr Podrabinek]] along with a 47 year-old self-educated worker [[Feliks Serebrov]], a 30 year-old computer programmer [[Vyacheslav Bakhmin]] and [[Irina Kuplun]] established the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The Commission was formally linked to the [[Moscow Helsinki Group]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} founded by [[Yuri Orlov]] along with ten others including [[Elena Bonner]] and [[Anatoly Shcharansky]] in 1976 to monitor Soviet compliance with the human rights provisions of the [[Helsinki Accords]].<ref name="Human Rights Watch"/>{{rp|67}} The commission was composed of five open members and several anonymous ones, including a few psychiatrists who, at great danger to themselves, conducted their own independent examinations of cases of alleged psychiatric abuse.<ref name="The spread"/> The leader of the commission was [[Alexandr Podrabinek]] who published a book ''Punitive Medicine''<ref name="The spread"/> containing a "white list" of two hundred of [[prisoners of conscience]] in Soviet mental hospitals and a "black list" of over one hundred medical staff and doctors who took part in committing people to psychiatric facilities for political reasons.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|15}}


The psychiatric consultants to the Commission were [[Alexander Voloshanovich]] and [[Anatoly Koryagin]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|153}} The task stated by the Commission was not primarily to diagnose persons or to declare people who sought help mentally ill or mentally healthy.<ref name="van Voren, Bloch"/>{{rp|26}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} However, in some instances individuals who came for help to the Commission were examined by a psychiatrist who provided help to the Commission and made a precise diagnosis of their mental condition.<ref name="van Voren, Bloch"/>{{rp|26}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} At first it was psychiatrist Alexander Voloshanovich from the Moscow suburb of [[Dolgoprudny]], who made these diagnoses.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} But when he had been compelled to emigrate on 7 February 1980,<ref name=Voloshanovich>{{cite journal|title=Dr Alexander Voloshanovich: A Critic of the Political Misuse of Psychiatry in the USSR|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1980|volume=4|issue=5|pages=70–71|doi=10.1192/pb.4.5.70|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/4/5/70.pdf|accessdate=20 January 2011}}</ref> his work was continued by the [[Kharkov]] psychiatrist Anatoly Koryagin.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} Koryagin's contribution was to examine former and potential victims of political abuse of psychiatry by writing psychiatric diagnoses in which he deduced that the individual was not suffering from any mental disease.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|179}} Those reports were employed as a means of defense: if the individual was picked up again and committed to mental hospital, the Commission had vindication that the hospitalization served non-medical purposes.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|179}} Also some foreign psychiatrists including the Swedish psychiatrist [[Harald Blomberg]] and British psychiatrist [[Gery Low-Beer]] helped in examining former or potential victims of psychiatric abuse.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} The Commission used those reports in its work and publicly referred to them when it was essential.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}}
The psychiatric consultants to the Commission were [[Alexander Voloshanovich]] and [[Anatoly Koryagin]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|153}} The task stated by the Commission was not primarily to diagnose persons or to declare people who sought help mentally ill or mentally healthy.<ref name="van Voren, Bloch"/>{{rp|26}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} However, in some instances individuals who came for help to the Commission were examined by a psychiatrist who provided help to the Commission and made a precise diagnosis of their mental condition.<ref name="van Voren, Bloch"/>{{rp|26}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} At first it was psychiatrist Alexander Voloshanovich from the Moscow suburb of [[Dolgoprudny]], who made these diagnoses.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} But when he had been compelled to emigrate on 7 February 1980,<ref name="Voloshanovich"/> his work was continued by the [[Kharkov]] psychiatrist Anatoly Koryagin.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} Koryagin's contribution was to examine former and potential victims of political abuse of psychiatry by writing psychiatric diagnoses in which he deduced that the individual was not suffering from any mental disease.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|179}} Those reports were employed as a means of defense: if the individual was picked up again and committed to mental hospital, the Commission had vindication that the hospitalization served non-medical purposes.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|179}} Also some foreign psychiatrists including the Swedish psychiatrist [[Harald Blomberg]] and British psychiatrist [[Gery Low-Beer]] helped in examining former or potential victims of psychiatric abuse.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}} The Commission used those reports in its work and publicly referred to them when it was essential.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|150}}


The commission gathered as much information as possible of victims of psychiatric terror in the Soviet Union and published this information in their ''Information Bulletins''.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} For the four years of its existence, the Commission published more than 1,500 pages of documentation including 22 ''Information Bulletins'' in which over 400 cases of the political abuse of psychiatry were documented in great detail.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} Summaries of the ''Information Bulletins'' were published in the key samizdat publication, the ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]''.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The ''Information Bulletins'' were sent to the Soviet officials, with request to verify the data and notify the Commission if mistakes were found, and to the West, where human rights defenders used them in the course of their campaigns.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The ''Information Bulletins'' were also used to provide the dissident movement with information about Western protests against the political abuse.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} [[Peter Reddaway]] said that after he had studied official documents in the Soviet archives, including minutes from meetings of the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], it became evident to him that Soviet officials at high levels paid close attention to foreign responses to these cases, and if someone was discharged, all dissidents felt the pressure had played a significant part and the more foreign pressure the better.<ref name="Moran, 19 Nov. 2010">{{cite journal|last=Moran|first=Mark|title=Former Soviet Dissidents Believed APA Pressure Forced Change|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=19 November|volume=45|issue= 22|page=11|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/22/11.1.full|accessdate=20 January 2011}}</ref>
The commission gathered as much information as possible of victims of psychiatric terror in the Soviet Union and published this information in their ''Information Bulletins''.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} For the four years of its existence, the Commission published more than 1,500 pages of documentation including 22 ''Information Bulletins'' in which over 400 cases of the political abuse of psychiatry were documented in great detail.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} Summaries of the ''Information Bulletins'' were published in the key samizdat publication, the ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]''.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The ''Information Bulletins'' were sent to the Soviet officials, with request to verify the data and notify the Commission if mistakes were found, and to the West, where human rights defenders used them in the course of their campaigns.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} The ''Information Bulletins'' were also used to provide the dissident movement with information about Western protests against the political abuse.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} [[Peter Reddaway]] said that after he had studied official documents in the Soviet archives, including minutes from meetings of the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], it became evident to him that Soviet officials at high levels paid close attention to foreign responses to these cases, and if someone was discharged, all dissidents felt the pressure had played a significant part and the more foreign pressure the better.<ref name="Moran, 19 Nov. 2010"/>


Over fifty victims examined by psychiatrists of the Moscow Working Commission between 1977 and 1981 and the files smuggled to the West by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] in 1971 were the material which convinced most psychiatric associations that there was distinctly something wrong in the USSR.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|245}}
Over fifty victims examined by psychiatrists of the Moscow Working Commission between 1977 and 1981 and the files smuggled to the West by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] in 1971 were the material which convinced most psychiatric associations that there was distinctly something wrong in the USSR.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|245}}
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The Soviet authorities responded aggressively.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} Members of the group were being threatened, followed, subjected to house searches and interrogations.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} In the end, the members of the Commission were subjected to various terms and types of punishments: Alexander Podrabinek was sentenced to 5 years' internal exile, Irina Grivnina to 5 years' internal exile, Vyacheslav Bakhmin to 3 years in a labor camp, [[Leonard Ternovsky]] to 3 years' labor camp, Anatoly Koryagin to 8 years' imprisonment and labor camp and 4 years' internal exile, Alexander Voloshanovich was sent to voluntary exile.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|153}}
The Soviet authorities responded aggressively.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} Members of the group were being threatened, followed, subjected to house searches and interrogations.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|45}} In the end, the members of the Commission were subjected to various terms and types of punishments: Alexander Podrabinek was sentenced to 5 years' internal exile, Irina Grivnina to 5 years' internal exile, Vyacheslav Bakhmin to 3 years in a labor camp, [[Leonard Ternovsky]] to 3 years' labor camp, Anatoly Koryagin to 8 years' imprisonment and labor camp and 4 years' internal exile, Alexander Voloshanovich was sent to voluntary exile.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|153}}
[[Image:Royal College of Psychiatrists, Belgrave Square.jpg|right|thumb|[[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] (building with yellow flag) in [[Belgrave Square]], [[London]]]]
[[Image:Royal College of Psychiatrists, Belgrave Square.jpg|right|thumb|[[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] (building with yellow flag) in [[Belgrave Square]], [[London]]]]
In the autumn of 1978, the British [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] carried a resolution in which it reiterated its concern over the abuse of psychiatry for the suppression of dissent in the USSR and applauded the Soviet citizens, who had taken an open stance against such abuse, by expressing its admiration and support especially for Semyon Gluzman, Alexander Podrabinek, Alexander Voloshanovich, and [[Vladimir Moskalkov]].<ref name="Meeting">{{cite journal|title=Autumn Quarterly Meeting 1978|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1979|volume=3|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1192/pb.3.1.5|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/3/1/5.pdf|accessdate=23 January 2011}}</ref>
In the autumn of 1978, the British [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] carried a resolution in which it reiterated its concern over the abuse of psychiatry for the suppression of dissent in the USSR and applauded the Soviet citizens, who had taken an open stance against such abuse, by expressing its admiration and support especially for Semyon Gluzman, Alexander Podrabinek, Alexander Voloshanovich, and [[Vladimir Moskalkov]].<ref name="Meeting"/>


=== Resolutions for expulsion or suspension ===
=== Resolutions for expulsion or suspension ===
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On 18 January 1983, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to the [[GDR]], [[Gorald Gorinovich]], delivered a message from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] to the [[Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Central Committee]] of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] in which it said that the abnormal situation which had developed within the World Psychiatric Association put in effect its whole activity in question and that for this reason, All-Union Society took the decision to withdraw from the WPA.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|203}}
On 18 January 1983, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to the [[GDR]], [[Gorald Gorinovich]], delivered a message from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] to the [[Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Central Committee]] of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] in which it said that the abnormal situation which had developed within the World Psychiatric Association put in effect its whole activity in question and that for this reason, All-Union Society took the decision to withdraw from the WPA.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|203}}


On 22 January 1983, the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' published a letter by [[Allan Wynn]], the chairman of the [[Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals]], reporting that in consequence of the continued abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union the American, British, French, Danish, Norwegian, Swiss, and Australasian member societies of the [[World Psychiatric Association]] with the support indicated by many of its other members proposed resolutions for the expulsion or suspension of membership of the Soviet Society of Neurologists and Psychiatrists, which would be considered at the World Congress of the World Psychiatric Association in [[Vienna]] in July 1983.<ref name=Wynn>{{cite journal|last=Wynn|first=Allan|title=Imprisonment of Dr Anatoly Koryagin|journal=[[The British Medical Journal]]|year=1983|month=22 January|volume=286|issue=6361|page=309|pmc=1546518|accessdate=20 January 2011|pmid=6402080|doi=10.1136/bmj.286.6361.309-a}}</ref>
On 22 January 1983, the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' published a letter by [[Allan Wynn]], the chairman of the [[Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals]], reporting that in consequence of the continued abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union the American, British, French, Danish, Norwegian, Swiss, and Australasian member societies of the [[World Psychiatric Association]] with the support indicated by many of its other members proposed resolutions for the expulsion or suspension of membership of the Soviet Society of Neurologists and Psychiatrists, which would be considered at the World Congress of the World Psychiatric Association in [[Vienna]] in July 1983.<ref name="Wynn"/>


On 31 January 1983, the All-Union Society officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|203}} under threat of expulsion.<ref name="Soviets Left WPA"/> In their letter of resignation, the Soviets complained about a "slanderous campaign, blatantly political in nature… directed against Soviet psychiatry in the spirit of the '[[cold war]]' against the Soviet Union" and, being especially angry about the memorandum of the American Psychiatric Association of August 1982, charged the WPA leadership with complicity by not having spoken out against this mailing.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|204}}
On 31 January 1983, the All-Union Society officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|203}} under threat of expulsion.<ref name="Soviets Left WPA"/> In their letter of resignation, the Soviets complained about a "slanderous campaign, blatantly political in nature… directed against Soviet psychiatry in the spirit of the '[[cold war]]' against the Soviet Union" and, being especially angry about the memorandum of the American Psychiatric Association of August 1982, charged the WPA leadership with complicity by not having spoken out against this mailing.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|204}}
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According reports on hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|Committee on Foreign Affairs]] and the [[Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe]] on 20 September 1983, the national associations justly held the opinion that 10 years of mild public protests, quiet diplomacy, and private conversations with Soviet official psychiatrists had produced no significant change in the level of Soviet abuses, and that this approach had, thereby, failed.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|44}} In January 1983, the number of member associations of the World Psychiatry Association, voting for the suspension or expulsion of the Soviet Union, rose to nine.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|44}} Inasmuch as these associations would have half the votes in the WPA governing body, the Soviets was now, in January, almost sure to be voted out in July.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|45}}
According reports on hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|Committee on Foreign Affairs]] and the [[Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe]] on 20 September 1983, the national associations justly held the opinion that 10 years of mild public protests, quiet diplomacy, and private conversations with Soviet official psychiatrists had produced no significant change in the level of Soviet abuses, and that this approach had, thereby, failed.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|44}} In January 1983, the number of member associations of the World Psychiatry Association, voting for the suspension or expulsion of the Soviet Union, rose to nine.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|44}} Inasmuch as these associations would have half the votes in the WPA governing body, the Soviets was now, in January, almost sure to be voted out in July.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|45}}


According the statement made by the chairman of the APA Committee on International Abuse of Psychiatry and Psychiatrists [[Harold Vysotsky]] at the hearing, the Committee on behalf of certain persons had written hundreds of letters to the USSR, including those to authorities of the Soviet Government, to patients themselves, the families of patients, the psychiatrists who were treating these patients, but only indirectly heard from the families of patients and had never received a response from the authorities.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|16}} In the statement, he mentioned that 20 cases were referred over to the World Psychiatric Association for further investigation by their committee to review alleged abuses of psychiatry for political purposes and a number of these cases were sent to the All Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR for clarification and response, but when months and months went by and the World Psychiatric Association had received no response from Soviet colleagues, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] and a number of other psychiatric associations across the world carried a resolution which stated:<ref name="Bloch 1985"/>{{rp|185}}<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|16}}<ref name="Reporter">{{cite journal|journal=Human Rights Internet reporter|year=1982|volume=8|page=381|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TvUvAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref>{{rp|381}}
According the statement made by the chairman of the APA Committee on International Abuse of Psychiatry and Psychiatrists [[Harold Vysotsky]] at the hearing, the Committee on behalf of certain persons had written hundreds of letters to the USSR, including those to authorities of the Soviet Government, to patients themselves, the families of patients, the psychiatrists who were treating these patients, but only indirectly heard from the families of patients and had never received a response from the authorities.<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|16}} In the statement, he mentioned that 20 cases were referred over to the World Psychiatric Association for further investigation by their committee to review alleged abuses of psychiatry for political purposes and a number of these cases were sent to the All Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR for clarification and response, but when months and months went by and the World Psychiatric Association had received no response from Soviet colleagues, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] and a number of other psychiatric associations across the world carried a resolution which stated:<ref name="Bloch 1985"/>{{rp|185}}<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|16}}<ref name="Reporter"/>{{rp|381}}
{{cquote|If the All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists of the USSR does not adequately respond to all enquiries from the World Psychiatric Association regarding the issue of psychiatric abuse in that country by April 1, 1983, that the All-Union Society should be suspended from membership in the World Psychiatric Association until such time that these abuses cease to exist.}}
{{cquote|If the All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists of the USSR does not adequately respond to all enquiries from the World Psychiatric Association regarding the issue of psychiatric abuse in that country by April 1, 1983, that the All-Union Society should be suspended from membership in the World Psychiatric Association until such time that these abuses cease to exist.}}


=== The Vienna Congress ===
=== The Vienna Congress ===
The Seventh World Congress of the WPA was scheduled to meet on July 10 – 16, 1983, at [[Vienna]] where heated discussion and a close vote on the resolutions were anticipated.<ref name="A Chronicle">{{cite book|title=A Chronicle of human rights in the USSR Выпуски 45-48|year=1982|publisher=Khronika Press|page=62|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iwQcAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|62}}
The Seventh World Congress of the WPA was scheduled to meet on July 10 – 16, 1983, at [[Vienna]] where heated discussion and a close vote on the resolutions were anticipated.<ref name="A Chronicle"/>{{rp|62}}


The General Assembly of the World Psychiatric Association in Vienna was likely one of the most tense and disorganized meetings in its existence.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} Some delegates, especially those from [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Egypt]], [[Cuba]], and the GDR angrily appealed to the WPA Executive Committee not to accept the resignation of the Soviets, whereas others voiced the view that it was a fact of life one had to live with, an opinion supported by the WPA President [[Pierre Pichot]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} The debate was preceded by a discussion of various resolutions which had been submitted, but the state of affairs was so perplexing that some delegates did not even know which resolution they were asked to vote upon.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} Finally a resolution drafted by the British delegate [[Kenneth Rawnsley]],<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} who served as the fourth president of the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] from 1981 to 1984,<ref name="Roth">{{cite journal|last1=Roth|first1=Martin|last2=Rollin|first2=Henry (editor)|title=Kenneth Rawnsley: Obituary|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1992|volume=16|issue=9|pages=587–589|doi=10.1192/pb.16.9.587|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/16/9/587.pdf|accessdate=5 February 2011}}</ref> was carried by 174 votes to 18, with 27 abstentions.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}}<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|17}}<ref name="Bloch 1984">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse: the shadow over world psychiatry|year=1984|publisher=V. Gollancz|isbn=0575032537|page=218|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Uv7aAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|218}} The resolution was strikingly conciliatory in tone:<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}}<ref name="Bloch 1984"/>{{rp|218}}
The General Assembly of the World Psychiatric Association in Vienna was likely one of the most tense and disorganized meetings in its existence.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} Some delegates, especially those from [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Egypt]], [[Cuba]], and the GDR angrily appealed to the WPA Executive Committee not to accept the resignation of the Soviets, whereas others voiced the view that it was a fact of life one had to live with, an opinion supported by the WPA President [[Pierre Pichot]].<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} The debate was preceded by a discussion of various resolutions which had been submitted, but the state of affairs was so perplexing that some delegates did not even know which resolution they were asked to vote upon.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} Finally a resolution drafted by the British delegate [[Kenneth Rawnsley]],<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}} who served as the fourth president of the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] from 1981 to 1984,<ref name="Roth"/> was carried by 174 votes to 18, with 27 abstentions.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}}<ref name="Abuse"/>{{rp|17}}<ref name="Bloch 1984"/>{{rp|218}} The resolution was strikingly conciliatory in tone:<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|211}}<ref name="Bloch 1984"/>{{rp|218}}
{{cquote|The World Psychiatric Association would welcome the return of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR to membership of the Association, but would expect sincere co-operation and concrete evidence beforehand of amelioration of the political abuse psychiatry in the Soviet Union.}}
{{cquote|The World Psychiatric Association would welcome the return of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR to membership of the Association, but would expect sincere co-operation and concrete evidence beforehand of amelioration of the political abuse psychiatry in the Soviet Union.}}


=== Releases ===
=== Releases ===
The freedoms of the [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] period diminished the human rights movement because many of their decades-long concerns such as suppression of free expression, imprisonment of dissidents, and psychiatric abuse were not longer the main problems facing Soviet society.<ref name="Johnston">{{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Michael|title=Civil society and corruption: mobilizing for reform|year=2005|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=0761831258|page=9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PGrAc4cMDw8C&pg=PA9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}
The freedoms of the [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] period diminished the human rights movement because many of their decades-long concerns such as suppression of free expression, imprisonment of dissidents, and psychiatric abuse were not longer the main problems facing Soviet society.<ref name="Johnston"/>{{rp|9}}


1986 saw the discharge of nineteen political prisoners from mental hospitals.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|318}}<ref name="Fitzpatrick">{{cite book|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Catherine|title=Soviet abuse of psychiatry for political purposes: A Helsinki Watch report|year=1988|publisher=U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee|page=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AJkTHAAACAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|3}} In 1987, sixty-four political prisoners were discharged from mental hospitals.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|318}}<ref name="Fitzpatrick"/>{{rp|3}} In early 1988, [[Chief Psychiatrist]] [[Aleksandr Churkin]] stated in an interview with ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'' issued on 5 April 1988 that 5,5 million Soviet citizens were on the psychiatric register and that within two years 30 percent would be removed from this list.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|322}} However, a year later the journal ''[[Ogoniok]]'' published a figure of 10,2 million provided by the state statistics committee.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|322}}<ref name="Огонёк">{{cite journal|journal=Огонёк|year=1989|month=15–22 апреля|issue=№ 16|page=24}}</ref> In 1990, ''[[Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S S Korsakova]]'' published almost the same figure of 10 million people registered at psychoneurological dispensaries and 335,200 hospital beds used in the Soviet Union by 1987.<ref name="Ougrin"/><ref name="Жариков">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last1=Жариков|first1=Н.М.|last2=Киселёв|first2=А.С.|title=Психиатрическая помощь в СССР и некоторые её показатели|journal=Журнал невропатологии и психиатрии им. С.С. Корсакова|year=1990|issue=№ 90|pages=70–74}}</ref>
1986 saw the discharge of nineteen political prisoners from mental hospitals.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|318}}<ref name="Fitzpatrick"/>{{rp|3}} In 1987, sixty-four political prisoners were discharged from mental hospitals.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|318}}<ref name="Fitzpatrick"/>{{rp|3}} In early 1988, [[Chief Psychiatrist]] [[Aleksandr Churkin]] stated in an interview with ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'' issued on 5 April 1988 that 5,5 million Soviet citizens were on the psychiatric register and that within two years 30 percent would be removed from this list.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|322}} However, a year later the journal ''[[Ogoniok]]'' published a figure of 10,2 million provided by the state statistics committee.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|322}}<ref name="Огонёк">{{cite journal|journal=Огонёк|year=1989|month=15–22 апреля|issue=№ 16|page=24}}</ref> In 1990, ''[[Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S S Korsakova]]'' published almost the same figure of 10 million people registered at psychoneurological dispensaries and 335,200 hospital beds used in the Soviet Union by 1987.<ref name="Ougrin"/><ref name="Жариков">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last1=Жариков|first1=Н.М.|last2=Киселёв|first2=А.С.|title=Психиатрическая помощь в СССР и некоторые её показатели|journal=Журнал невропатологии и психиатрии им. С.С. Корсакова|year=1990|issue=№ 90|pages=70–74}}</ref>


At a press conference held in Moscow on 27 October 1989, [[Gennady Milyokhin]] claimed that of the three hundred patients named by international human rights organizations, "practically all had left hospital."<ref name="Bloch 1990">{{cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Sidney|title=Athens and beyond: Soviet psychiatric abuse and the World Psychiatric Association|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1990|volume=14|issue=3|pages=129–133|doi=10.1192/pb.14.3.12|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/14/3/129.pdf|accessdate=6 February 2011}}</ref>
At a press conference held in Moscow on 27 October 1989, [[Gennady Milyokhin]] claimed that of the three hundred patients named by international human rights organizations, "practically all had left hospital."<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>


=== Visit of the US delegation ===
=== Visit of the US delegation ===
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The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of [[psychopathology]] or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}
The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of [[psychopathology]] or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}


When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}} The report was published in ''[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]'', Supplement to Vol. 15, No. 4, 1989.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|385}}<ref name="Report">{{cite journal|title=Report of the U.S. Delegation to Assess Recent Changes in Soviet Psychiatry|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|year=1989|volume=15|issue=4 Suppl|pages=1–219|doi=|pmid=2638045|url=http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/suppl_1/1.1.full.pdf|accessdate=5 February 2011}}</ref> As far as Robert van Voren could establish, the report was never published in the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|385}} Only after twenty years, in 2009, the report was traslated into Russian, and its Russian version was published not in Russia but in [[Netherlands]], on the website of the [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]].<ref name="Russian version of the report">{{cite web|title=Russian version of the report of the US Delegation to the USSR, published in the Schizophrenia Bulletin 1989, translated in 2009.|url=http://www.gip-global.org/p/30/338/|publisher=[[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]|accessdate=5 February 2011}}</ref>
When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}} The report was published in ''[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]'', Supplement to Vol. 15, No. 4, 1989.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}}<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|385}}<ref name="Report"/> As far as Robert van Voren could establish, the report was never published in the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|385}} Only after twenty years, in 2009, the report was traslated into Russian, and its Russian version was published not in Russia but in [[Netherlands]], on the website of the [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]].<ref name="Russian version of the report"/>


=== The Athens Congress ===
=== The Athens Congress ===
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On 16 October, the Soviet delegation convened a press conference.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> The panel was uniformly evasive and defensive.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> After a detailed and lengthy account by Karpov of Soviet psychiatric reforms in which he emphasized the specialities of the new mental health legislation and in particular the legal safeguards for patients, other panellists worked out on what they considered as positive aspects of the new developments.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> However then, abruptly, this sense of optimism was disrupted by the bluntest of questions posed by [[Anatoly Koryagin]]: Had political psychiatric abuse occurred or not?<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> [[Alexander Tiganov]], who played a prominent part in the press conference, answered hesitatingly that "such cases" could have taken place during the period of stagnation "but there was a need to distinguish between psychiatric, legal and political aspects."<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> Koryagin persevered with his challenge and countered that these answers failed to clarify whether an acknowledgment was being made that Soviet psychiatry had been misused for political reasons.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>
On 16 October, the Soviet delegation convened a press conference.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> The panel was uniformly evasive and defensive.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> After a detailed and lengthy account by Karpov of Soviet psychiatric reforms in which he emphasized the specialities of the new mental health legislation and in particular the legal safeguards for patients, other panellists worked out on what they considered as positive aspects of the new developments.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> However then, abruptly, this sense of optimism was disrupted by the bluntest of questions posed by [[Anatoly Koryagin]]: Had political psychiatric abuse occurred or not?<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> [[Alexander Tiganov]], who played a prominent part in the press conference, answered hesitatingly that "such cases" could have taken place during the period of stagnation "but there was a need to distinguish between psychiatric, legal and political aspects."<ref name="Bloch 1990"/> Koryagin persevered with his challenge and countered that these answers failed to clarify whether an acknowledgment was being made that Soviet psychiatry had been misused for political reasons.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>


Koryagin stated that readmission would offer carte blanche to the KGB to continue its repressive practices, that there would be further abuse of psychiatry, and that the plight of prisoners would be hopeless.<ref name="Appleby">{{cite journal|last=Appleby|first=Louis|title=Anatoly Koryagin: what next on Soviet psychiatric abuse?|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|year=1987|month=7 November|volume=295|issue=6607|page=1164|pmid=3120927|pmc=1248242|accessdate=27 February 2011|doi=10.1136/bmj.295.6607.1164}}</ref> He proposed four conditions for readmission:<ref name="Appleby"/>
Koryagin stated that readmission would offer carte blanche to the KGB to continue its repressive practices, that there would be further abuse of psychiatry, and that the plight of prisoners would be hopeless.<ref name="Appleby"/> He proposed four conditions for readmission:<ref name="Appleby"/>
# Soviet psychiatrists must acknowledge previous political abuses and reject them;
# Soviet psychiatrists must acknowledge previous political abuses and reject them;
# all detainees must be released;
# all detainees must be released;
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Several national associations, including the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]], the [[Australasian College]], the [[Swiss Psychiatric Association]], and the [[West German Psychiatric Association]] insisted that the Soviet Society should not be admitted until specific conditions had been satisfied; these included the release of all dissidents unjustifiably detained in psychiatric hospitals, and the dissociation by the authorities from the past abuse and their obligation to prevent its repetition.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>
Several national associations, including the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]], the [[Australasian College]], the [[Swiss Psychiatric Association]], and the [[West German Psychiatric Association]] insisted that the Soviet Society should not be admitted until specific conditions had been satisfied; these included the release of all dissidents unjustifiably detained in psychiatric hospitals, and the dissociation by the authorities from the past abuse and their obligation to prevent its repetition.<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>


The Soviet delegation to the 1989 World Congress of the WPA in Athens eventually agreed to admit that the systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes had indeed taken place in their country.<ref name="Munro 2002"/>{{rp|32}}<ref name="Munro 2000">{{cite journal|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=The Soviet Case: Prelude to a Global Consensus on Psychiatry and Human Rights|journal=Columbia Journal of Asian Law|year=2000|volume=14|issue=1|url=http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2002/china02/china0802-02.htm|accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref> At the Congress, the Soviet Society's International Secretary [[Pyotr Morozov]] on behalf of his delegation made a statement containing the following five points, which are quoted in full:<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>
The Soviet delegation to the 1989 World Congress of the WPA in Athens eventually agreed to admit that the systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes had indeed taken place in their country.<ref name="Munro 2002"/>{{rp|32}}<ref name="Munro 2000"/> At the Congress, the Soviet Society's International Secretary [[Pyotr Morozov]] on behalf of his delegation made a statement containing the following five points, which are quoted in full:<ref name="Bloch 1990"/>
{{cquote|
{{cquote|
# The All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists publicly acknowledges that previous political conditions created an environment in which psychiatric abuse occurred for non-medical, including political, reasons.
# The All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists publicly acknowledges that previous political conditions created an environment in which psychiatric abuse occurred for non-medical, including political, reasons.
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{{cquote|On 17th October 1989 the All Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the USSR, which counts among its members criminal psychiatrists, guilty of psychiatric abuses for political purposes, was readmitted to the World Psychiatric Association. As I do not wish to be a member of an organization together with that kind of persons, I renounce the honorary membership of the World Psychiatric Association, which I held since 1983.}}
{{cquote|On 17th October 1989 the All Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the USSR, which counts among its members criminal psychiatrists, guilty of psychiatric abuses for political purposes, was readmitted to the World Psychiatric Association. As I do not wish to be a member of an organization together with that kind of persons, I renounce the honorary membership of the World Psychiatric Association, which I held since 1983.}}


The Soviet delegates returned to Moscow jubilantly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} In an interview with a Soviet television crew, [[Marat Vartanyan]] replied to the question whether any conditions had been set to a Soviet return:<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}}<ref name=Documents>{{cite journal|journal=Documents on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the USSR|year=1989|month=December|issue= 31}}</ref>
The Soviet delegates returned to Moscow jubilantly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} In an interview with a Soviet television crew, [[Marat Vartanyan]] replied to the question whether any conditions had been set to a Soviet return:<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}}<ref name="Documents"/>
{{cquote|No, that is wrong information, which you received from somewhere. There were no conditions. We set the conditions. That is, we proposed… eh… the Executive Committee of the WPA to come to us on an official visit to the Soviet Union within a year.}}
{{cquote|No, that is wrong information, which you received from somewhere. There were no conditions. We set the conditions. That is, we proposed… eh… the Executive Committee of the WPA to come to us on an official visit to the Soviet Union within a year.}}
The next day, the government newspaper ''[[Izvestiya]]'' carried a report on 19 October which did not mention any of the conditions while asserting that the All Union Society had been granted full membership.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} The dissemination of disinformation on the part of the Soviets had distinctly not yet come to an end.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} Only on 27 October 1989, ''Meditsinskaya Gazeta'' reported the conditions set by the WPA General Assembly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}}
The next day, the government newspaper ''[[Izvestiya]]'' carried a report on 19 October which did not mention any of the conditions while asserting that the All Union Society had been granted full membership.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} The dissemination of disinformation on the part of the Soviets had distinctly not yet come to an end.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}} Only on 27 October 1989, ''Meditsinskaya Gazeta'' reported the conditions set by the WPA General Assembly.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|437}}
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=== Visit of the WPA delegation ===
=== Visit of the WPA delegation ===
The WPA team spent three weeks in the Soviet Union,<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|71}} from 9 to 29 June 1991,<ref name="Report by the WPA Team">{{cite book|title=Report by the World Psychiatric Association Team of the Visit to the Soviet Union (9–29 June 1991)|year=1991|publisher=[[Royal College of Psychiatrists]]|location=London|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Q63sNAAACAAJ}}</ref> and saw ten cases, all of which had been diagnosed by Soviet psychiatrists as having schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|72}} When reviewed case notes and the results of their own interviews, the WPA team confirmed the diagnosis of schizophrenia only in one case and reported that there was still a wide gap between Soviet criteria for the diagnosis of schizophrenia and those used internationally in other countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|72}}<ref name="Report by the WPA Team"/>{{rp|11}} Of the six individuals committed to a Special Psychiatric Hospital, four of the cases were distinctly of a political nature and of these four, three had never been mentally sick.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|454}}<ref name="Report by the WPA Team"/>{{rp|10}}
The WPA team spent three weeks in the Soviet Union,<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|71}} from 9 to 29 June 1991,<ref name="Report by the WPA Team"/> and saw ten cases, all of which had been diagnosed by Soviet psychiatrists as having schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|72}} When reviewed case notes and the results of their own interviews, the WPA team confirmed the diagnosis of schizophrenia only in one case and reported that there was still a wide gap between Soviet criteria for the diagnosis of schizophrenia and those used internationally in other countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|72}}<ref name="Report by the WPA Team"/>{{rp|11}} Of the six individuals committed to a Special Psychiatric Hospital, four of the cases were distinctly of a political nature and of these four, three had never been mentally sick.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|454}}<ref name="Report by the WPA Team"/>{{rp|10}}


In a letter sent in 1991 to Aleksandr Tiganov, the new chairman of the All Union Society (or, the now called themselves, the Federation of Societies of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]), the WPA General Secretary [[Juan José Lopez Ibor]] wrote that the All Union Society made in the General Assembly a Statement that included five items, several of which was not yet fulfilled, and that thereby, the Executive Committee unanimously agreed that it would not recommend continuing membership of the society in June 1993.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} Less than two months after the visit of the team to the Soviet Union, a coup against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] was carried out.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} The coup failed and was followed by the dissolution of the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} As a consequence, the All Union Society remained without a country to represent.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} The USSR Federation of Psychiatrists and Narcologists officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association in October 1992.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}}
In a letter sent in 1991 to Aleksandr Tiganov, the new chairman of the All Union Society (or, the now called themselves, the Federation of Societies of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]), the WPA General Secretary [[Juan José Lopez Ibor]] wrote that the All Union Society made in the General Assembly a Statement that included five items, several of which was not yet fulfilled, and that thereby, the Executive Committee unanimously agreed that it would not recommend continuing membership of the society in June 1993.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} Less than two months after the visit of the team to the Soviet Union, a coup against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] was carried out.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} The coup failed and was followed by the dissolution of the USSR.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} As a consequence, the All Union Society remained without a country to represent.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}} The USSR Federation of Psychiatrists and Narcologists officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association in October 1992.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|455}}
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== Analysis ==
== Analysis ==
In 1990, ''Psychiatric Bulletin of the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]]'' published the article ''Compulsion in psychiatry: blessing or curse?'' by the Russian psychiatrist [[Anatoly Koryagin]].<ref name="Koryagin">{{cite journal|last=Koryagin|first=Anatoliy|authorlink=Anatoly Koryagin|title=Compulsion in psychiatry: blessing or curse?|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1990|volume=14|issue=7|pages=394–398|doi=10.1192/pb.5.2.36|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/14/7/394.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> It contains analysis of the abuse of psychiatry and eight arguments by which the existence of a system of political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR cаn easily be demonstrated.<ref name="Koryagin"/> As Koryagin wrote, in a dictatorial State with a totalitarian regime, such as the USSR, the laws have at all times served not the purpose of self-regulation of the life of society but have been one of the major levers by which to manipulate the behavior of subjects.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Every Soviet citizen has constantly been straight considered state property and been regarded not as the aim, but as a means to achieve the rulers' objectives.<ref name="Koryagin"/> From the perspective of state pragmatism, a mentally sick person was regarded as a burden to society, using up the state's material means without recompense and not producing anything, and even potentially capable of inflicting harm.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Therefore, the Soviet State never considered it reasonable to pass special legislative acts protecting the material and legal part of the patients' life.<ref name="Koryagin"/> It was only instructions of the legal and medical departments that stipulated certain rules of handling the mentally sick and imposing different sanctions on them.<ref name="Koryagin"/> A person with a mental disorder was automatically divested of all rights and depended entirely on the psychiatrists' will.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Practically anybody could undergo psychiatric examination on the most senseless grounds and the issued diagnosis turned him into a person without rights.<ref name="Koryagin"/> It was this lack of legal rights and guarantees that advantaged a system of repressive psychiatry in the country.<ref name="Koryagin"/>
In 1990, ''Psychiatric Bulletin of the [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]]'' published the article ''Compulsion in psychiatry: blessing or curse?'' by the Russian psychiatrist [[Anatoly Koryagin]].<ref name="Koryagin"/> It contains analysis of the abuse of psychiatry and eight arguments by which the existence of a system of political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR cаn easily be demonstrated.<ref name="Koryagin"/> As Koryagin wrote, in a dictatorial State with a totalitarian regime, such as the USSR, the laws have at all times served not the purpose of self-regulation of the life of society but have been one of the major levers by which to manipulate the behavior of subjects.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Every Soviet citizen has constantly been straight considered state property and been regarded not as the aim, but as a means to achieve the rulers' objectives.<ref name="Koryagin"/> From the perspective of state pragmatism, a mentally sick person was regarded as a burden to society, using up the state's material means without recompense and not producing anything, and even potentially capable of inflicting harm.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Therefore, the Soviet State never considered it reasonable to pass special legislative acts protecting the material and legal part of the patients' life.<ref name="Koryagin"/> It was only instructions of the legal and medical departments that stipulated certain rules of handling the mentally sick and imposing different sanctions on them.<ref name="Koryagin"/> A person with a mental disorder was automatically divested of all rights and depended entirely on the psychiatrists' will.<ref name="Koryagin"/> Practically anybody could undergo psychiatric examination on the most senseless grounds and the issued diagnosis turned him into a person without rights.<ref name="Koryagin"/> It was this lack of legal rights and guarantees that advantaged a system of repressive psychiatry in the country.<ref name="Koryagin"/>


According to O.V. Lapshin, Russia until 1993 did not have any specific legislation in the field of mental health except uncoordinated instructions and articles of laws in criminal and administrative law, orders of the [[USSR Ministry of Health]].<ref name="Лапшин">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Лапшин|first=О.В.|title=Недобровольная госпитализация психически больных в законодательстве России и Соединенных Штатов|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2003|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2003/4/commitment.htm|accessdate=8 July 2011}}</ref> In the Soviet Union, any psychiatric patient could be hospitalized by request of his headman, relatives or instructions of a district psychiatrist.<ref name="Лапшин"/> In this case, patient’s consent or dissent mattered nothing.<ref name="Лапшин"/> The duration of treatment in a psychiatric hospital also depended entirely on the psychiatrist.<ref name="Лапшин"/> All that made the abuse of psychiatry possible to suppress those, who disagreed with the political regime, and that created the vicious practice of ignoring the rights of the mentally ill.<ref name="Лапшин"/>
According to O.V. Lapshin, Russia until 1993 did not have any specific legislation in the field of mental health except uncoordinated instructions and articles of laws in criminal and administrative law, orders of the [[USSR Ministry of Health]].<ref name="Лапшин">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Лапшин|first=О.В.|title=Недобровольная госпитализация психически больных в законодательстве России и Соединенных Штатов|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2003|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2003/4/commitment.htm|accessdate=8 July 2011}}</ref> In the Soviet Union, any psychiatric patient could be hospitalized by request of his headman, relatives or instructions of a district psychiatrist.<ref name="Лапшин"/> In this case, patient’s consent or dissent mattered nothing.<ref name="Лапшин"/> The duration of treatment in a psychiatric hospital also depended entirely on the psychiatrist.<ref name="Лапшин"/> All that made the abuse of psychiatry possible to suppress those, who disagreed with the political regime, and that created the vicious practice of ignoring the rights of the mentally ill.<ref name="Лапшин"/>
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Their interaction system is principally sociological: the presence of the Penal Code article on slandering the state system inevitably results in sending a certain percentage of citizens to forensic psychiatric examination.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/> Thus, it is not psychiatry itself that is punitive, but the totalitarian state uses psychiatry for punitive purposes with ease.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/>
Their interaction system is principally sociological: the presence of the Penal Code article on slandering the state system inevitably results in sending a certain percentage of citizens to forensic psychiatric examination.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/> Thus, it is not psychiatry itself that is punitive, but the totalitarian state uses psychiatry for punitive purposes with ease.<ref name="Карательная психиатрия"/>


According to [[Larry Gostin]], the root cause of the problem was the State itself.<ref name="Gostin">{{cite journal|last=Gostin|first=Larry|title=Soviet Psychiatric Abuse: the Shadow Over World Psychiatry|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1986|month=September|volume=12|issue=3|pages=161–162|accessdate=21 April 2011|pmc=1375367}}</ref> The definition of danger was radically extended by the Soviet criminal system to cover 'political' as well as customary physical types of 'danger'.<ref name="Gostin"/>
According to [[Larry Gostin]], the root cause of the problem was the State itself.<ref name="Gostin"/> The definition of danger was radically extended by the Soviet criminal system to cover 'political' as well as customary physical types of 'danger'.<ref name="Gostin"/>


According to [[Semyon Gluzman]], abuse of psychiatry to suppress dissent is based on condition of psychiatry in a totalitarian state.<ref name="Глузман, 2010"/> Psychiatric paradigm of a totalitarian state is culpable for its expansion into spheres which are not initially those of psychiatric competence.<ref name="Глузман, 2010"/>
According to [[Semyon Gluzman]], abuse of psychiatry to suppress dissent is based on condition of psychiatry in a totalitarian state.<ref name="Глузман, 2010"/> Psychiatric paradigm of a totalitarian state is culpable for its expansion into spheres which are not initially those of psychiatric competence.<ref name="Глузман, 2010"/>


[[Richard Bonnie]], a professor of law and medicine at the [[University of Virginia School of Law]], mentioned the deformed nature of the Soviet psychiatric profession as one of the explanations for why it was so easily bent toward the repressive objectives of the state, and pointed out the importance of a civil society and, in particular, independent professional organizations separate and apart from the state as one of the most substantial lessons from the period.<ref name="Moran, 3 Dec. 2010">{{cite journal|last=Moran|first=Mark|title=Historic Visit Documented Abuses, Led to Psychiatric System Reform|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=3 December|volume=45|issue= 23|pages=9, 37|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/23/9.1.full|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>
[[Richard Bonnie]], a professor of law and medicine at the [[University of Virginia School of Law]], mentioned the deformed nature of the Soviet psychiatric profession as one of the explanations for why it was so easily bent toward the repressive objectives of the state, and pointed out the importance of a civil society and, in particular, independent professional organizations separate and apart from the state as one of the most substantial lessons from the period.<ref name="Moran, 3 Dec. 2010"/>


According to [[Moscow]] psychiatrist [[Alexander Danilin]], the so-called "nosological" approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by A.V. Snezhnevsky boiles down to the ability to make an only diagnosis, schizophrenia; psychiatry is not science but such a system of opinions and people by the thousands are falling victims to these opinions—millions of lives were crippled by virtue of the concept "sluggish schizophrenia" introduced some time once by Andrei Vladimirovich Snezhnevsky, academician, whom Danilin called a political offender.<ref name="Тупик">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Данилин|first=Александр|title=Тупик |journal=Русская жизнь |volume=|issue=|pages=|year=2008|month=28 марта|url=http://www.rulife.ru/mode/article/613/|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>
According to [[Moscow]] psychiatrist [[Alexander Danilin]], the so-called "nosological" approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by A.V. Snezhnevsky boiles down to the ability to make an only diagnosis, schizophrenia; psychiatry is not science but such a system of opinions and people by the thousands are falling victims to these opinions—millions of lives were crippled by virtue of the concept "sluggish schizophrenia" introduced some time once by Andrei Vladimirovich Snezhnevsky, academician, whom Danilin called a political offender.<ref name="Тупик">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Данилин|first=Александр|title=Тупик |journal=Русская жизнь |volume=|issue=|pages=|year=2008|month=28 марта|url=http://www.rulife.ru/mode/article/613/|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>
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[[St Petersburg]] academic psychiatrist [[Yuri Nuller]] notes that the concept of Snezhnevsky's school allows, for example, to consider schizoid psychopathy or schizoidism as the early, sluggishly progressing stages of an inevitable progredient process rather than the personality characteristics of an individual, which may not develop along the path of schizophrenic process at all.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Нуллер|first=Юрий|title=Парадигмы в психиатрии|year=1993|publisher=Видання Асоціації психіатрів України|location=Киев|url=http://psychiatry.spsma.spb.ru/lib/nuller/paradigma.htm}}</ref><ref name="Нуллер, 1991">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Нуллер|title=О парадигме в психиатрии|journal=Обозрение психиатрии и медицинской психологии имени В.М. Бехтерева|year=1991|issue=№ 4|publisher=Институт им. В.М. Бехтерева}}</ref> That results in the extreme expansion of diagnosing sluggish schizophrenia and the harm it has done.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> Nuller adds that within the scope of the sluggish schizophrenia concept, any deviation from the norm evaluated by a doctor can be regarded as schizophrenia, with all the ensuing consequences for an examinee.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> That creates ample opportunity for voluntary and involuntary abuses of psychiatry.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> However, neither A.V. Snezhnevsky nor his followers, according to Nuller, found civil and scientific courage to review their concept that clearly reached a deadlock.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/>
[[St Petersburg]] academic psychiatrist [[Yuri Nuller]] notes that the concept of Snezhnevsky's school allows, for example, to consider schizoid psychopathy or schizoidism as the early, sluggishly progressing stages of an inevitable progredient process rather than the personality characteristics of an individual, which may not develop along the path of schizophrenic process at all.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Нуллер|first=Юрий|title=Парадигмы в психиатрии|year=1993|publisher=Видання Асоціації психіатрів України|location=Киев|url=http://psychiatry.spsma.spb.ru/lib/nuller/paradigma.htm}}</ref><ref name="Нуллер, 1991">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Нуллер|title=О парадигме в психиатрии|journal=Обозрение психиатрии и медицинской психологии имени В.М. Бехтерева|year=1991|issue=№ 4|publisher=Институт им. В.М. Бехтерева}}</ref> That results in the extreme expansion of diagnosing sluggish schizophrenia and the harm it has done.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> Nuller adds that within the scope of the sluggish schizophrenia concept, any deviation from the norm evaluated by a doctor can be regarded as schizophrenia, with all the ensuing consequences for an examinee.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> That creates ample opportunity for voluntary and involuntary abuses of psychiatry.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/> However, neither A.V. Snezhnevsky nor his followers, according to Nuller, found civil and scientific courage to review their concept that clearly reached a deadlock.<ref name="Нуллер, 1993"/><ref name="Нуллер, 1991"/>


In 1977, British psychiatrist [[David Cooper (psychiatrist)|David Cooper]] asked [[Michel Foucault]] the same question which [[Claude Bourdet]] had formerly asked [[Viktor Fainberg]] during a press conference given by Fainberg and [[Leonid Plyushch|Plyushch]]: when the USSR has the whole penitentiary and police apparatus, which could take charge of anybody, and which is perfect in itself, why do they use psychiatry?<ref name="Foucault, Kritzman">{{cite book|last1=Foucault|first1=Michel|authorlink1=Michel Foucault|last2=Kritzman|first2=Lawrence|authorlink2=Lawrence Kritzman|title=Politics, philosophy, culture: interviews and other writings, 1977-1984|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415901499|page=182|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HfWNHGCw55EC&pg=PA182}}</ref>{{rp|182}} Foucault answered it was not a question of a ''distortion'' of the use of psychiatry but that was its fundamental project.<ref name="Foucault, Kritzman"/>{{rp|182}}
In 1977, British psychiatrist [[David Cooper (psychiatrist)|David Cooper]] asked [[Michel Foucault]] the same question which [[Claude Bourdet]] had formerly asked [[Viktor Fainberg]] during a press conference given by Fainberg and [[Leonid Plyushch|Plyushch]]: when the USSR has the whole penitentiary and police apparatus, which could take charge of anybody, and which is perfect in itself, why do they use psychiatry?<ref name="Foucault, Kritzman"/>{{rp|182}} Foucault answered it was not a question of a ''distortion'' of the use of psychiatry but that was its fundamental project.<ref name="Foucault, Kritzman"/>{{rp|182}}


American psychiatrist [[Thomas Szasz]] argued that the spectacle of the Western psychiatrists loudly condemning Soviet colleagues for their abuse of professional standards was largely an exercise in hypocrisy.<ref name="Gosden">{{cite book|last=Gosden|first=Richard|title=Punishing the Patient: How Psychiatrists Misunderstand and Mistreat Schizophrenia|year=2001|publisher=Scribe Publications|location=Melbourne|isbn=0908011520|page=220|url=http://sites.google.com/site/punishingthepatient/home}} (The text of the book in full is available online by [http://sites.google.com/site/punishingthepatient/home click])</ref>{{rp|220}} According to Szasz, the problem, from which psychiatric abuse stems, is psychiatric power that is just as prevalent in democratic societies as it was in the USSR.<ref name="Gosden"/>{{rp|220}} He stated that psychiatric abuse, such as people usually associated with practices in the former USSR, was connected not with the misuse of psychiatric diagnoses, but with the political power built-in to the social role of the psychiatrist in democratic and totalitarian societies alike.<ref name="Gosden"/>{{rp|220}}<ref name="Szasz">{{cite journal|last=Szasz|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Szasz|title=Psychiatric diagnosis, psychiatric power and psychiatric abuse|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1994|month=September|volume=20|issue=3|pages=135–138|pmc=1376496|accessdate=19 February 2011|pmid=7996558}}</ref> In an article published in 1994 by Szasz on the Journal of medical ethics (open for debate) he stated ''"(...) The classification by slave owners and slave traders of certain individuals as Negroes was scientific, in the sense that whites were rarely classified as blacks. But that did not prevent the 'abuse' of such racial classification, because (what we call) its abuse was, in fact, its use. (...)"<ref name="Szasz"/>
American psychiatrist [[Thomas Szasz]] argued that the spectacle of the Western psychiatrists loudly condemning Soviet colleagues for their abuse of professional standards was largely an exercise in hypocrisy.<ref name="Gosden"/>{{rp|220}} According to Szasz, the problem, from which psychiatric abuse stems, is psychiatric power that is just as prevalent in democratic societies as it was in the USSR.<ref name="Gosden"/>{{rp|220}} He stated that psychiatric abuse, such as people usually associated with practices in the former USSR, was connected not with the misuse of psychiatric diagnoses, but with the political power built-in to the social role of the psychiatrist in democratic and totalitarian societies alike.<ref name="Gosden"/>{{rp|220}}<ref name="Szasz"/> In an article published in 1994 by Szasz on the Journal of medical ethics (open for debate) he stated ''"(...) The classification by slave owners and slave traders of certain individuals as Negroes was scientific, in the sense that whites were rarely classified as blacks. But that did not prevent the 'abuse' of such racial classification, because (what we call) its abuse was, in fact, its use. (...)"<ref name="Szasz"/>


== Residual problems ==
== Residual problems ==
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In the early 1990s, Tatyana Dmitrieva, the Director of the [[Serbsky Center]], brought the required words of repentance for political abuse of psychiatry<ref name="Светова">{{cite journal|last=Светова|first=Зоя|title=Злоупотребление психиатрической властью в России – свидетельствует пресса|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2007|issue=№ 2|pages=87–89|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2007/2/misuse.htm|accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref> which had had unprecedented dimensions in the Soviet Union for discrediting, intimidation and suppression of the human rights movement carried out primarily in this institution.<ref name="Права человека">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|chapter=Тенденции в отношении к правам человека в области психического здоровья|editor=Новикова А|title=Права человека и психиатрия в Российской Федерации: Доклад по результатам мониторинга и тематические статьи|year=2004|publisher=Московская Хельсинкская группа|location=Москва|isbn=5984400073|url=http://www.mhg.ru/publications/A8847E6}}</ref> Her words were widely broadcasted abroad but were limitedly published in the St. Petersburg newspaper ''[[Chas Pik]]'' within the country.<ref name="Светова"/><ref name="Права человека"/> However, in her 2001 book ''Aliyans Prava i Milosediya'' (''The Alliance of Law and Mercy''), Dmitrieva wrote that there were no abuses in psychiatry and if there were those, they were no more than in the vaunted Western countries.<ref name="Права человека"/> Moreover, the mentioned book by Dmitrieva administers to the old and new national intellectuals the rebuke that professor [[Vladimir Serbsky]] and others were wrong not to cooperate with the [[police department]] because otherwise there would have been neither [[Russian Revolution (1917)|revolution]] nor bloodshed and that the current intellectuals are wrong to oppose the authorities.<ref name="Права человека"/>
In the early 1990s, Tatyana Dmitrieva, the Director of the [[Serbsky Center]], brought the required words of repentance for political abuse of psychiatry<ref name="Светова">{{cite journal|last=Светова|first=Зоя|title=Злоупотребление психиатрической властью в России – свидетельствует пресса|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2007|issue=№ 2|pages=87–89|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2007/2/misuse.htm|accessdate=8 August 2011}}</ref> which had had unprecedented dimensions in the Soviet Union for discrediting, intimidation and suppression of the human rights movement carried out primarily in this institution.<ref name="Права человека">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Савенко|first=Юрий|chapter=Тенденции в отношении к правам человека в области психического здоровья|editor=Новикова А|title=Права человека и психиатрия в Российской Федерации: Доклад по результатам мониторинга и тематические статьи|year=2004|publisher=Московская Хельсинкская группа|location=Москва|isbn=5984400073|url=http://www.mhg.ru/publications/A8847E6}}</ref> Her words were widely broadcasted abroad but were limitedly published in the St. Petersburg newspaper ''[[Chas Pik]]'' within the country.<ref name="Светова"/><ref name="Права человека"/> However, in her 2001 book ''Aliyans Prava i Milosediya'' (''The Alliance of Law and Mercy''), Dmitrieva wrote that there were no abuses in psychiatry and if there were those, they were no more than in the vaunted Western countries.<ref name="Права человека"/> Moreover, the mentioned book by Dmitrieva administers to the old and new national intellectuals the rebuke that professor [[Vladimir Serbsky]] and others were wrong not to cooperate with the [[police department]] because otherwise there would have been neither [[Russian Revolution (1917)|revolution]] nor bloodshed and that the current intellectuals are wrong to oppose the authorities.<ref name="Права человека"/>


While speaking of the Serbsky Center, Yuri Savenko alleges that “practically nothing has changed. They have no shame at the institute about their role with the Communists. They are the same people, and they do not want to apologize for all their actions in the past.”<ref name="Glasser">{{cite news|last=Glasser|first=Susan|title=Psychiatry's Painful Past Resurfaces in Russian Case; Handling of Chechen Murder Reminds Many of Soviet Political Abuse of Mental Health System|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/266056771.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Dec+15,+2002|accessdate=|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=Dec 15, 2002}} Translation of the article into Russian: {{cite news|title=Болезненное прошлое российской психиатрии вновь всплыло в судебном деле Буданова|url=http://www.inosmi.ru/untitled/20021215/166738.html|accessdate=12 July 2011|newspaper=[[inosmi.ru]]|date=2002-12-15|accessdate=12 July 2011}}</ref> Attorney [[Karen Nersisyan]] agrees: “Serbsky is not an organ of medicine. It’s an organ of power.”<ref name="Glasser"/>
While speaking of the Serbsky Center, Yuri Savenko alleges that “practically nothing has changed. They have no shame at the institute about their role with the Communists. They are the same people, and they do not want to apologize for all their actions in the past.”<ref name="Glasser"/> Attorney [[Karen Nersisyan]] agrees: “Serbsky is not an organ of medicine. It’s an organ of power.”<ref name="Glasser"/>


In 2004, Savenko stated that the passed law on state expert activity and introduction of profession of forensic expert psychiatrist actually destroyed adversary-based examinations and that the Serbsky Center turned into a complete monopolist of forensic examination, which it had never been under Soviet rule.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/> Formerly, a court could include any psychiatrist in a commission of experts, but now the court only chooses an expert institution.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/> An expert has the right to participate only in commissions, in which he is included by the head of his expert institution, and can receive the certificate of qualification as an expert only after having worked in a state expert institution for three years.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/>
In 2004, Savenko stated that the passed law on state expert activity and introduction of profession of forensic expert psychiatrist actually destroyed adversary-based examinations and that the Serbsky Center turned into a complete monopolist of forensic examination, which it had never been under Soviet rule.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/> Formerly, a court could include any psychiatrist in a commission of experts, but now the court only chooses an expert institution.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/> An expert has the right to participate only in commissions, in which he is included by the head of his expert institution, and can receive the certificate of qualification as an expert only after having worked in a state expert institution for three years.<ref name="Отчетный доклад"/>
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== Use of psychiatry against religious minorities in post-Soviet times ==
== Use of psychiatry against religious minorities in post-Soviet times ==
There have been examples of the serious misuse of psychiatry by local authorities reminiscent of the Soviet abuses.<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book|last=Larkin|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Larkin|title=International Religious Freedom (2000): Annual Report: Submitted by the U.S. Department of State|year=2001|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=0756712297|page=369|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OTx1qbA8OW8C&pg=PA369}}</ref>{{rp|369}} A number of human rights organizations including the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] criticized the use of psychiatry in "deprogramming" members of "totalitarian sects."<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}<ref name="Lipton">{{cite book|last=Lipton|first=Edward|title=Religious freedom in the Near East, northern Africa and the former Soviet states|year=2002|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=159033390X|page=182|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=43_j4vdkk5MC&pg=PA182}}</ref>{{rp|182}} In such cases, authorities apply spiritual and pseudo-psychological techniques to "treat" individuals who are members of new religious groups.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}<ref name="Lipton"/>{{rp|182}} Six Scientologists were arbitrarily detained for psychiatric examination.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}} In January 2000 in [[St. Petersburg]], chief psychiatrist [[Larisa Rubina]] charged leader of Sentuar (the local offshoot of the [[Church of Scientology]]) [[Vladimir Tretyak]] with inflicting psychological damage on his coreligionists.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}} On June 17, six members of Sentuar — [[Lyudmila Urzhumtseva]], [[Svetlana Pastuchenkova]], [[Svetlana Kruglova]], [[Irina Shamarina]], [[Igor Zakrayev]], and [[Mikhail Dvorkin]] — were forcibly hospitalized and subjected to 3 weeks of criminal investigation at the behest of [[Boris Larionov]], procurator of the Vyborsky district of St. Petersburg.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}
There have been examples of the serious misuse of psychiatry by local authorities reminiscent of the Soviet abuses.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}} A number of human rights organizations including the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] criticized the use of psychiatry in "deprogramming" members of "totalitarian sects."<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}<ref name="Lipton"/>{{rp|182}} In such cases, authorities apply spiritual and pseudo-psychological techniques to "treat" individuals who are members of new religious groups.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}<ref name="Lipton"/>{{rp|182}} Six Scientologists were arbitrarily detained for psychiatric examination.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}} In January 2000 in [[St. Petersburg]], chief psychiatrist [[Larisa Rubina]] charged leader of Sentuar (the local offshoot of the [[Church of Scientology]]) [[Vladimir Tretyak]] with inflicting psychological damage on his coreligionists.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}} On June 17, six members of Sentuar — [[Lyudmila Urzhumtseva]], [[Svetlana Pastuchenkova]], [[Svetlana Kruglova]], [[Irina Shamarina]], [[Igor Zakrayev]], and [[Mikhail Dvorkin]] — were forcibly hospitalized and subjected to 3 weeks of criminal investigation at the behest of [[Boris Larionov]], procurator of the Vyborsky district of St. Petersburg.<ref name="Larkin"/>{{rp|369}}


In 2005, [[Igor Kanterov]], a professor of the [[Moscow State University]], wrote that psychiatrists and psychologists were actually being involved in a very unattractive occupation, stigmatizing “alien” religions and their followers, who were about 1 million first-class citizens of the Russian Federation, and putting them “on the basis of a list of them” in the category of “psychic terrorists.”<ref name="Кантеров">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Кантеров|first=Игорь|title=Порочная методология и ее плоды|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 3|url=http://npar.ru/journal/2005/3/methodology.htm|accessdate=6 August 2011}}</ref>
In 2005, [[Igor Kanterov]], a professor of the [[Moscow State University]], wrote that psychiatrists and psychologists were actually being involved in a very unattractive occupation, stigmatizing “alien” religions and their followers, who were about 1 million first-class citizens of the Russian Federation, and putting them “on the basis of a list of them” in the category of “psychic terrorists.”<ref name="Кантеров">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Кантеров|first=Игорь|title=Порочная методология и ее плоды|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 3|url=http://npar.ru/journal/2005/3/methodology.htm|accessdate=6 August 2011}}</ref>
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In modern Russia, the role of psychiatry in the criminal field is the same as in other countries: to evaluate whether defendants in criminal cases are [[legally sane]] to stand trial. For example, when an accused war criminal [[Yuri Budanov]] was tested at the Moscow Serbsky Institute in 2002, the panel conducting the inquiry was led by Tamara Pechernikova, who had declared poet [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] insane several decades earlier. Budanov was found not guilty by reason of [[temporary insanity]], but later he was found legally sane to stand the trial by another panel that included [[Georgi Morozov]], the former Serbsky director who had declared many dissidents insane several decades earlier.<ref name="Glasser"/>
In modern Russia, the role of psychiatry in the criminal field is the same as in other countries: to evaluate whether defendants in criminal cases are [[legally sane]] to stand trial. For example, when an accused war criminal [[Yuri Budanov]] was tested at the Moscow Serbsky Institute in 2002, the panel conducting the inquiry was led by Tamara Pechernikova, who had declared poet [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] insane several decades earlier. Budanov was found not guilty by reason of [[temporary insanity]], but later he was found legally sane to stand the trial by another panel that included [[Georgi Morozov]], the former Serbsky director who had declared many dissidents insane several decades earlier.<ref name="Glasser"/>


There have been reports in the 2000s about alleged imprisonment of people "inconvenient" for Russian authorities in psychiatric institutions. The artivist [[Larisa Arap]] was forcibly confined at a psychiatric clinic in [[Apatity]].<ref name="Activist"/><ref name="Rodriguez"/><ref name="Хотелось бы"/><ref name="Blomfield"/><ref name="Gee"/> Journalist [[Marina Kalashnikova]] was also detained for 35 days and claims it was done in an attempt to dissuade her from criticising the authorities.<ref name="Nyquist"/> The charge that psychiatry is again being abused is not universally accepted within the profession in Russia. [[Vladimir Rotstein]], who is the president of [[Public Initiative on Psychiatry]], an advocacy group, stated that the problem of psychiatric persecution or forced treatment existed more than 20 years ago, but it was solved and since then he has not heard of any case of forced psychiatric treatment or examination.<ref name="Finn"/> However, the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] states that the number of activists being wrongfully committed to psychiatric institutions totals dozens of cases in recent years.<ref name="Finn"/><ref name="Crazy">[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-psychiatry30may30,1,3925644.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Speak Out? Are You Crazy?] - by Kim Murphy, Los Angeles Times, May 30, 2006</ref> In 2006, the [[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]] issued a warning that in the [[Russian Federation]] 'psychiatry is used as a tool against dissent.'<ref name="Psychiatry used">{{cite web|title=Psychiatry used as a tool against dissent|url=http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday339.php|publisher=[[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]]|accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref> In March 2006, a former nuclear scientist and vocal public defender [[Marina Trutko]] was subjected to daily injections for six weeks at Psychiatric Hospital No. 14 in Dubna, Russia, to treat her for a “paranoid personality disorder.” In 2005, [[Nikolai Skachkov]], who protested police brutality and official corruption in the Omsk region of Siberia, spent 6 months in a closed psychiatric facility, with a diagnosis of paranoia.<ref name="Dissent3">[http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article2816669.ece Russian dissident 'forcibly detained in mental hospital'] - By Alastair Gee, The Independent, July 30, 2007</ref><ref name="Dissent4">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6925779.stm Psychiatric abuse claim in Russia'] - BBC, 1st August 30, 2007</ref>
There have been reports in the 2000s about alleged imprisonment of people "inconvenient" for Russian authorities in psychiatric institutions. The artivist [[Larisa Arap]] was forcibly confined at a psychiatric clinic in [[Apatity]].<ref name="Activist"/><ref name="Rodriguez"/><ref name="Хотелось бы"/><ref name="Blomfield"/><ref name="Gee"/> Journalist [[Marina Kalashnikova]] was also detained for 35 days and claims it was done in an attempt to dissuade her from criticising the authorities.<ref name="Nyquist"/> The charge that psychiatry is again being abused is not universally accepted within the profession in Russia. [[Vladimir Rotstein]], who is the president of [[Public Initiative on Psychiatry]], an advocacy group, stated that the problem of psychiatric persecution or forced treatment existed more than 20 years ago, but it was solved and since then he has not heard of any case of forced psychiatric treatment or examination.<ref name="Finn"/> However, the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] states that the number of activists being wrongfully committed to psychiatric institutions totals dozens of cases in recent years.<ref name="Finn"/><ref name="Crazy"/> In 2006, the [[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]] issued a warning that in the [[Russian Federation]] 'psychiatry is used as a tool against dissent.'<ref name="Psychiatry used"/> In March 2006, a former nuclear scientist and vocal public defender [[Marina Trutko]] was subjected to daily injections for six weeks at Psychiatric Hospital No. 14 in Dubna, Russia, to treat her for a “paranoid personality disorder.” In 2005, [[Nikolai Skachkov]], who protested police brutality and official corruption in the Omsk region of Siberia, spent 6 months in a closed psychiatric facility, with a diagnosis of paranoia.<ref name="Dissent3"/><ref name="Dissent4"/>


As mentioned in 2010, reports on particular cases of psychiatric abuse continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> It is the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] that appears to make very active efforts to communicate their views on the previous and present abuses of psychiatry in Russia to psychiatry in the West.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|541}}
As mentioned in 2010, reports on particular cases of psychiatric abuse continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> It is the [[Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia]] that appears to make very active efforts to communicate their views on the previous and present abuses of psychiatry in Russia to psychiatry in the West.<ref name="Lavretsky"/>{{rp|541}}
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== Popular culture ==
== Popular culture ==
The widely known sources including published and written memoirs of victims of psychiatric arbitrariness convey moral and physical sufferings experienced by victims of psychiatric arbitrariness in special psychiatric hospitals of the USSR.<ref name="Gluzman, 1991">{{cite journal|last=Gluzman|first=Semyon|authorlink=Semyon Gluzman|title=Abuse of psychiatry: analysis of the guilt of medical personnel|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1991|month=December|volume=17|issue=Supplement|pages=19–20|pmid=11651120|accessdate=27 July 2011|pmc=1378165|doi=10.1136/jme.17.Suppl.19|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1378165/|}}</ref>
The widely known sources including published and written memoirs of victims of psychiatric arbitrariness convey moral and physical sufferings experienced by victims of psychiatric arbitrariness in special psychiatric hospitals of the USSR.<ref name="Gluzman, 1991"/>


In 1965, [[Valery Tarsis]] published in the West his book ''Ward 7: An Autobiographical Novel''<ref name="Tarsis"/> based upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} The book was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}}
In 1965, [[Valery Tarsis]] published in the West his book ''Ward 7: An Autobiographical Novel''<ref name="Tarsis"/> based upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|140}} The book was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.<ref name="Marsh"/>{{rp|208}}
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In 1968, the Russian poet [[Joseph Brodsky]] wrote ''[[Gorbunov and Gorchakov]]'', a forty-page long poem in thirteen cantos consisting of lengthy conversations between two patients in a Soviet psychiatric prison as well as between each of them separately and the interrogating psychiatrists.<ref name="Barańczak">{{cite book|last=Barańczak|first=Stanisław|title=Breathing under water and other East European essays|year=1990|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674081250|page=212|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hIg3wyeQuYYC&pg=PA212}}</ref>{{rp|212}} The topics vary from the taste of the cabbage served for supper to the meaning of life and Russia's destiny.<ref name="Barańczak"/>{{rp|212}} The poem was translated into English by [[Harry Thomas (translator)|Harry Thomas]].<ref name="Barańczak"/>{{rp|212}} The experience underlying ''Gorbunov and Gorchakov'' was formed by two stints of Brodsky at psychiatric establishments.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|90}}
In 1968, the Russian poet [[Joseph Brodsky]] wrote ''[[Gorbunov and Gorchakov]]'', a forty-page long poem in thirteen cantos consisting of lengthy conversations between two patients in a Soviet psychiatric prison as well as between each of them separately and the interrogating psychiatrists.<ref name="Barańczak">{{cite book|last=Barańczak|first=Stanisław|title=Breathing under water and other East European essays|year=1990|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674081250|page=212|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hIg3wyeQuYYC&pg=PA212}}</ref>{{rp|212}} The topics vary from the taste of the cabbage served for supper to the meaning of life and Russia's destiny.<ref name="Barańczak"/>{{rp|212}} The poem was translated into English by [[Harry Thomas (translator)|Harry Thomas]].<ref name="Barańczak"/>{{rp|212}} The experience underlying ''Gorbunov and Gorchakov'' was formed by two stints of Brodsky at psychiatric establishments.<ref name="Brintlinger"/>{{rp|90}}


In 1970, the book ''Red Square at Noon'' by [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] was published in Russian<ref name="Горбаневская">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Горбаневская|first=Наталья|title=Полдень: Дело о демонстрации 25 августа 1968 года на Красной площади|year=1970|publisher=Посев|location=Франкфурт-на-Майне|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_book288d.html}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_book288d.html click])</ref> and English.<ref name="Gorbanevskaya">{{cite book|last=Gorbanevskaya|first=Natalia|authorlink=Natalya Gorbanevskaya|title=Red Square at Noon|year=1970|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|isbn=0030859905|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ASnFuwe5GKEC}}</ref> Some parts of the book describe special psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric examinations of dissidents.
In 1970, the book ''Red Square at Noon'' by [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] was published in Russian<ref name="Горбаневская">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Горбаневская|first=Наталья|title=Полдень: Дело о демонстрации 25 августа 1968 года на Красной площади|year=1970|publisher=Посев|location=Франкфурт-на-Майне|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_book288d.html}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_book288d.html click])</ref> and English.<ref name="Gorbanevskaya"/> Some parts of the book describe special psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric examinations of dissidents.


In 1971, [[Zhores Medvedev]] and [[Roy Medvedev]] published their joint book ''A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union'' describing the hospitalization of Zhores Medvedev for political purposes and the Soviet practice of diagnosing political oppositionists as the mentally ill.<ref name="Medvedev"/>
In 1971, [[Zhores Medvedev]] and [[Roy Medvedev]] published their joint book ''A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union'' describing the hospitalization of Zhores Medvedev for political purposes and the Soviet practice of diagnosing political oppositionists as the mentally ill.<ref name="Medvedev"/>
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In 1976, [[Viktor Nekipelov]] published in [[samizdat]] his book ''Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute''<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|147}} documenting his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Jena"/>{{rp|86}} In 1980, the book was translated and published in English.<ref name="Nekipelov"/><ref name="Keefer"/>{{rp|312}} Only in 2005, the book was published in Russia.<ref name="Институт"/><ref name="Некипелов">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Некипелов|first=Виктор|title=Институт дураков|year=2005|publisher=Изд-во организации «Помощь пострадавшим от психиатров»|location=Барнаул|url=http://www.belousenko.com/books/kgb/nekipelov_institut_durakov.htm}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of Aleksandr Belousenko's Library by [http://www.belousenko.com/books/kgb/nekipelov_institut_durakov.htm click])</ref>
In 1976, [[Viktor Nekipelov]] published in [[samizdat]] his book ''Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute''<ref name="Bloch 1977"/>{{rp|147}} documenting his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute.<ref name="Jena"/>{{rp|86}} In 1980, the book was translated and published in English.<ref name="Nekipelov"/><ref name="Keefer"/>{{rp|312}} Only in 2005, the book was published in Russia.<ref name="Институт"/><ref name="Некипелов">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Некипелов|first=Виктор|title=Институт дураков|year=2005|publisher=Изд-во организации «Помощь пострадавшим от психиатров»|location=Барнаул|url=http://www.belousenko.com/books/kgb/nekipelov_institut_durakov.htm}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of Aleksandr Belousenko's Library by [http://www.belousenko.com/books/kgb/nekipelov_institut_durakov.htm click])</ref>


In 1977, British playwright [[Tom Stoppard]] wrote the play ''[[Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (play)|Every Good Boy Deserves Favour]]'' that criticized the Soviet practice of treating political dissidence as a form of mental illness.<ref name="Billington">{{cite news|last=Billington|first=Michael|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/2009/jan/19/review-every-good-boy-deserves-favour|accessdate=21 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=Monday 19 January 2009}}</ref><ref name="Spencer">{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Charles |title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour at the National Theatre, review|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-reviews/6989011/Every-Good-Boy-Deserves-Favour-at-the-National-Theatre-review.html|accessdate=21 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=14 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="Complete Review">{{cite web|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour by Tom Stoppard|url=http://www.complete-review.com/reviews/stoppt/egbdf.htm|publisher=[[The Complete Review]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Theatre">{{cite web|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour|url=http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/47002/productions/every-good-boy-deserves-favour.html|publisher=[[Royal National Theatre|The National Theatre]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref> The play is dedicated to [[Viktor Fainberg]] and [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], two Soviet dissidents expelled to the West.<ref name="Caute">{{cite book|last=Caute|first=David|title=The dancer defects: the struggle for cultural supremacy during the Cold War|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0199278830|page=359|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=i_lkfAD0oYUC&pg=PA359}}</ref>{{rp|359}}
In 1977, British playwright [[Tom Stoppard]] wrote the play ''[[Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (play)|Every Good Boy Deserves Favour]]'' that criticized the Soviet practice of treating political dissidence as a form of mental illness.<ref name="Billington"/><ref name="Spencer"/><ref name="Complete Review"/><ref name="Theatre"/> The play is dedicated to [[Viktor Fainberg]] and [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], two Soviet dissidents expelled to the West.<ref name="Caute"/>{{rp|359}}


In 1978, the book ''To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter'' by Vladimir Bukovsky, describing dissident movement, their struggle or freedom, practices of dealing with dissenters, and dozen years spent by Bukovsky in Soviet labor camps, prisons and psychiatric hospitals, was published<ref name="Буковский">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Буковский|first=Владимир|title=И возвращается ветер…|year=1978|publisher=Хроника|location=Нью-Йорк|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3 click])</ref> and later translated into English.<ref name="Bukovsky">{{cite book|last=Bukovsky|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Bukovsky|title=To build a castle: my life as a dissenter|year=1988|publisher=Ethics and Public Policy Center|isbn=0896331318|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QR0BAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
In 1978, the book ''To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter'' by Vladimir Bukovsky, describing dissident movement, their struggle or freedom, practices of dealing with dissenters, and dozen years spent by Bukovsky in Soviet labor camps, prisons and psychiatric hospitals, was published<ref name="Буковский">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Буковский|first=Владимир|title=И возвращается ветер…|year=1978|publisher=Хроника|location=Нью-Йорк|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3 click])</ref> and later translated into English.<ref name="Bukovsky"/>


In 1979, [[Leonid Plyushch]] published his book ''History's Carnival: A Dissident's Autobiography'' in which he described how he and other dissidents were committed to psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Плющ">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Плющ|first=Леонид|title=На карнавале истории|year=1979|publisher=Overseas Publications Interchange|location=London|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf905.html?Key=6397&page=5}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf905.html?Key=6397&page=5 click])</ref> At the same year, the book was translated into English.<ref name="Plyushch">{{cite book|last=Plyushch|first=Leonid|authorlink=Leonid Plyushch|title=History's carnival: a dissident's autobiography|year=1979|publisher=Collins and Harvill Press|isbn=0002621169|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2ljjAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
In 1979, [[Leonid Plyushch]] published his book ''History's Carnival: A Dissident's Autobiography'' in which he described how he and other dissidents were committed to psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Плющ">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Плющ|first=Леонид|title=На карнавале истории|year=1979|publisher=Overseas Publications Interchange|location=London|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf905.html?Key=6397&page=5}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf905.html?Key=6397&page=5 click])</ref> At the same year, the book was translated into English.<ref name="Plyushch"/>


In 1981, [[Pyotr Grigorenko]] published his memoirs ''V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys'' (''In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats'') that included story of his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations.<ref name="Григоренко"/> In 1982, the book was translated into English under the title ''Memoirs''.<ref name="Grigorenko, 1982"/>
In 1981, [[Pyotr Grigorenko]] published his memoirs ''V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys'' (''In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats'') that included story of his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations.<ref name="Григоренко"/> In 1982, the book was translated into English under the title ''Memoirs''.<ref name="Grigorenko, 1982"/>


In 1983, [[Yevgeniy Nikolaev]]’s book ''Predavshie Gippokrata'' (''The betrayal of Hippocrates''), when translated from Russian into German under the title ''Gehirnwäsche in Moskau'', was first published in [[München]] and told about psychiatric detention of its author for political reasons.<ref name="Nikolaev">{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Nikolaev|first=Evgenij|title=Gehirnwäsche in Moskau|year=1983|publisher=Klaus Schulz Verlag|location=München|isbn=3816205011}}</ref> In 1984, the book under its original title was first published in Russian that the book had originally been written in.<ref name="Николаев">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Николаев|first=Евгений|title=Предавшие Гиппократа|year=1984|publisher=Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd|location=London|isbn=0903868814|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookda4e.html?id=85545&aid=311}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3 click])</ref>
In 1983, [[Yevgeniy Nikolaev]]’s book ''Predavshie Gippokrata'' (''The betrayal of Hippocrates''), when translated from Russian into German under the title ''Gehirnwäsche in Moskau'', was first published in [[München]] and told about psychiatric detention of its author for political reasons.<ref name="Nikolaev"/> In 1984, the book under its original title was first published in Russian that the book had originally been written in.<ref name="Николаев">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Николаев|first=Евгений|title=Предавшие Гиппократа|year=1984|publisher=Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd|location=London|isbn=0903868814|url=http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_bookda4e.html?id=85545&aid=311}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center by [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/auth_pagesf128.html?Key=17441&page=3 click])</ref>


In the 1983 novel ''[[Firefox Down]]'' by [[Craig Thomas (author)|Craig Thomas]], captured American pilot Mitchell Gant is imprisoned in a KGB psychiatric clinic "associated with the Serbsky Institute", where he is drugged and interrogated to force him to reveal the location of the [[Mikoyan MiG-31 (fictional)|Firefox]] aircraft, which he has stolen and flown out of Russia.<ref name="Craig">{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Craig|authorlink=Craig Thomas|title=Firefox Down|year=1983|publisher=Bantam Books|location=New York|isbn=0553170953}}</ref>
In the 1983 novel ''[[Firefox Down]]'' by [[Craig Thomas (author)|Craig Thomas]], captured American pilot Mitchell Gant is imprisoned in a KGB psychiatric clinic "associated with the Serbsky Institute", where he is drugged and interrogated to force him to reveal the location of the [[Mikoyan MiG-31 (fictional)|Firefox]] aircraft, which he has stolen and flown out of Russia.<ref name="Craig"/>


In 1987, Robert van Voren published his book ''Koryagin: A man Struggling for Human Dignity'' telling about psychiatrist [[Anatoly Koryagin]] who resisted political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.<ref name="van Voren, 1987">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Koryagin: a man struggling for human dignity|year=1987|publisher=Second World Press|isbn=9071271072|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E-MdAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
In 1987, Robert van Voren published his book ''Koryagin: A man Struggling for Human Dignity'' telling about psychiatrist [[Anatoly Koryagin]] who resisted political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.<ref name="van Voren, 1987"/>


In 1988, ''Reportazh iz Niotkuda'' (''Reportage from Nowhere'') by [[Viktor Rafalsky]] was published.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|219}} In the publication, he described his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Рафальский"/>
In 1988, ''Reportazh iz Niotkuda'' (''Reportage from Nowhere'') by [[Viktor Rafalsky]] was published.<ref name="Коротенко"/>{{rp|219}} In the publication, he described his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.<ref name="Рафальский"/>
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In 1993, [[Valeria Novodvorskaya]] published her collection of writings ''Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya'' (''Beyond Despair'') in which her experience in the prison psychiatric hospital in [[Kazan]] was described.<ref name="Новодворская"/>
In 1993, [[Valeria Novodvorskaya]] published her collection of writings ''Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya'' (''Beyond Despair'') in which her experience in the prison psychiatric hospital in [[Kazan]] was described.<ref name="Новодворская"/>


In 1996, Vladimir Bukovsky published his book ''Judgement in Moscow'' containing an account of developing the punitive psychiatry based on documents that were being submitted to and considered by the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Буковский 1996">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Буковский|first=Владимир|title=Московский процесс|year=1996|publisher=Изд-ва «Русская мысль—МИК»|location=Париж—Москва|isbn=5879020711|pages=144–160|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/16635576/-1996-#fullscreen:on}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of "scribd" by [http://www.scribd.com/doc/16635576/-1996-#fullscreen:on click]; see chapter 3, section 8 called Психиатрический ГУЛАГ)</ref> The book was translated into English in 1999.<ref name="List">{{cite web|title=Vladimir Bukovsky: List of publications|url=http://www.thegratitudefund.org/buk-publ.html|publisher=The Gratitude Fund|accessdate=16 February 2011}}</ref>
In 1996, Vladimir Bukovsky published his book ''Judgement in Moscow'' containing an account of developing the punitive psychiatry based on documents that were being submitted to and considered by the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Буковский 1996">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Буковский|first=Владимир|title=Московский процесс|year=1996|publisher=Изд-ва «Русская мысль—МИК»|location=Париж—Москва|isbn=5879020711|pages=144–160|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/16635576/-1996-#fullscreen:on}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of "scribd" by [http://www.scribd.com/doc/16635576/-1996-#fullscreen:on click]; see chapter 3, section 8 called Психиатрический ГУЛАГ)</ref> The book was translated into English in 1999.<ref name="List"/>


In 2001, [[Nikolay Kupriyanov]] published his book ''GULAG-2-SN''<ref name="Куприянов">{{cite book|last=Куприянов|first=Николай|title=ГУЛАГ–2–СН|year=2001|publisher=Вертикаль, АБРИС|location=Санкт-Петербург|isbn=5853330519}}</ref> which has the foreword by [[Anatoly Sobchak]], covers repressive psychiatry in [[Soviet Army]], and tells about humiliations Kupriyanov underwent in the psychiatric departments of the [[Northern Fleet hospital]] and the [[Kirov Military Medical Academy]].<ref name="Дмитриев">{{cite journal|last=Дмитриев|first=Дмитрий|title=Книжная полка Дмитрия Дмитриева|journal=[[Novy Mir]]|year=2002|issue=№ 7|url=http://magazines.russ.ru/novyi_mi/2002/7/kn.html|accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref>
In 2001, [[Nikolay Kupriyanov]] published his book ''GULAG-2-SN''<ref name="Куприянов">{{cite book|last=Куприянов|first=Николай|title=ГУЛАГ–2–СН|year=2001|publisher=Вертикаль, АБРИС|location=Санкт-Петербург|isbn=5853330519}}</ref> which has the foreword by [[Anatoly Sobchak]], covers repressive psychiatry in [[Soviet Army]], and tells about humiliations Kupriyanov underwent in the psychiatric departments of the [[Northern Fleet hospital]] and the [[Kirov Military Medical Academy]].<ref name="Дмитриев">{{cite journal|last=Дмитриев|first=Дмитрий|title=Книжная полка Дмитрия Дмитриева|journal=[[Novy Mir]]|year=2002|issue=№ 7|url=http://magazines.russ.ru/novyi_mi/2002/7/kn.html|accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref>
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== Documents ==
== Documents ==
From 1987 to 1991, [[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]] published forty-two numbers of ''Documents on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the USSR''<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|490}} archived by the [[Columbia University Libraries]] in archival collection ''Human Rights Watch Records: Helsinki Watch, 1952-2003, Series VII: Chris Panico Files, 1979–1992, USSR, Psychiatry, International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry'', Box 16, Folder 5–8 (English version) and Box 16, Folder 9–11 (Russian version).<ref name="Records">{{cite web|title=Human Rights Watch Records: Helsinki Watch, 1952-2003|url=http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_6062290/dsc/7|publisher=[[Columbia University Libraries]]|accessdate=14 February 2011}}</ref> A number of various documents and reports were published in ''Information Bulletins'' by the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes, ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]'' by [[Moscow Helsinki Group]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} and in the books ''Punitive Medicine'' by [[Alexandr Podrabinek]],<ref name="Podrabinek"/><ref name="Подрабинек">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Карательная медицина|year=1979|publisher=Изд-во “Хроника”|location=Нью-Йорк|isbn=0897200225|url=http://www.imwerden.info/belousenko/books/kgb/podrabinek_karat_med.htm}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the online library «ImWerden» by [http://www.imwerden.info/belousenko/books/kgb/podrabinek_karat_med.htm click])</ref> ''Bezumnaya Psikhiatriya'' (''Mad Psychiatry'') by Anatoly Prokopenko,<ref name="Прокопенко"/> ''Judgement in Moscow'' by Vladimir Bukovsky,<ref name="Буковский 1996"/> ''Sovietskaya Psikhiatriya—Zabluzhdeniya i Umysel'' (''Soviet Psychiatry: Fallacies and Intent'') by Ada Korotenko and Natalia Alikina,<ref name="Коротенко"/> and ''Kaznimye Sumashestviem'' (''The Executed by Madness'').<ref name="Казнимые"/>
From 1987 to 1991, [[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]] published forty-two numbers of ''Documents on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the USSR''<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|490}} archived by the [[Columbia University Libraries]] in archival collection ''Human Rights Watch Records: Helsinki Watch, 1952-2003, Series VII: Chris Panico Files, 1979–1992, USSR, Psychiatry, International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry'', Box 16, Folder 5–8 (English version) and Box 16, Folder 9–11 (Russian version).<ref name="Records"/> A number of various documents and reports were published in ''Information Bulletins'' by the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes, ''[[Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat)|Chronicle of Current Events]]'' by [[Moscow Helsinki Group]]<ref name="Cold War"/>{{rp|148}} and in the books ''Punitive Medicine'' by [[Alexandr Podrabinek]],<ref name="Podrabinek"/><ref name="Подрабинек">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|last=Подрабинек|first=Александр|title=Карательная медицина|year=1979|publisher=Изд-во “Хроника”|location=Нью-Йорк|isbn=0897200225|url=http://www.imwerden.info/belousenko/books/kgb/podrabinek_karat_med.htm}} (The Russian text of the book in full is available online on the website of the online library «ImWerden» by [http://www.imwerden.info/belousenko/books/kgb/podrabinek_karat_med.htm click])</ref> ''Bezumnaya Psikhiatriya'' (''Mad Psychiatry'') by Anatoly Prokopenko,<ref name="Прокопенко"/> ''Judgement in Moscow'' by Vladimir Bukovsky,<ref name="Буковский 1996"/> ''Sovietskaya Psikhiatriya—Zabluzhdeniya i Umysel'' (''Soviet Psychiatry: Fallacies and Intent'') by Ada Korotenko and Natalia Alikina,<ref name="Коротенко"/> and ''Kaznimye Sumashestviem'' (''The Executed by Madness'').<ref name="Казнимые"/>


According to the Commentary on the Russian Federation Law on Psychiatric Care, persons, who were subjected to repressions in form of commitment for compulsory treatment to psychiatric medical institutions and were rehabilitated in accordance with the established procedure, receive indemnity payment; thereby the Russian Federation acknowledged the facts of the use of psychiatry for political purposes and the responsibility of the state to the victims of “political psychiatry.”<ref name="Законодательство">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|title=Законодательство Российской Федерации в области психиатрии. Комментарий к закону РФ о психиатрической помощи и гарантиях прав граждан при ее оказании, ГК РФ и УК РФ (в части, касающейся лиц с психическими расстройствами)|year=2002|publisher=Спарк|location=Москва|isbn=5889141872|url=http://www.psychoreanimatology.org/download/docs/psihiatriya_v_zakonodatelstve.pdf|editor=Т. Б. Дмитриева}}</ref>
According to the Commentary on the Russian Federation Law on Psychiatric Care, persons, who were subjected to repressions in form of commitment for compulsory treatment to psychiatric medical institutions and were rehabilitated in accordance with the established procedure, receive indemnity payment; thereby the Russian Federation acknowledged the facts of the use of psychiatry for political purposes and the responsibility of the state to the victims of “political psychiatry.”<ref name="Законодательство">{{ru icon}} {{cite book|title=Законодательство Российской Федерации в области психиатрии. Комментарий к закону РФ о психиатрической помощи и гарантиях прав граждан при ее оказании, ГК РФ и УК РФ (в части, касающейся лиц с психическими расстройствами)|year=2002|publisher=Спарк|location=Москва|isbn=5889141872|url=http://www.psychoreanimatology.org/download/docs/psihiatriya_v_zakonodatelstve.pdf|editor=Т. Б. Дмитриева}}</ref>
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==References==
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="A Chronicle">{{cite book|title=A Chronicle of human rights in the USSR Выпуски 45-48|year=1982|publisher=Khronika Press|page=62|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iwQcAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="A new campaign">{{cite journal|title=A new campaign against the political mind-benders|journal=[[New Scientist]] |year=1976|month=1 July|volume=71|issue= 1007|page=4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=m2fW4s6k4hEC&pg=PA4|accessdate=4 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Abuse">{{cite book|last=|first=|title=Abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union: hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session, September 20, 1983|year=1984|publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E1A1AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Activist">{{cite news|title=Activist held in psychiatric hospital|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/jul/29/briefly-98482602/|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Times]]|date=29 July 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="Albats">{{cite book|last=Albats|first=Yevgenia|title=KGB: state within a state|year=1995|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1850439958|pages=177|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zeYEhcHWjEUC&pg=PA177}}</ref>

<ref name="Andrew">{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Christopher|authorlink1=Christopher Andrew|last2=Mitrokhin|first2=Vasili|authorlink2=Vasili Mitrokhin|title=The sword and the shield: the Mitrokhin archive and the secret history of the KGB|year=1999|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|isbn=0465003109|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VpgkAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Applebaum">{{cite book|last=Applebaum|first=Anne|authorlink=Anne Applebaum|title=Gulag: a history|year=2004|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=1400034094|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fCurJRhH-GgC}}</ref>

<ref name="Appleby">{{cite journal|last=Appleby|first=Louis|title=Anatoly Koryagin: what next on Soviet psychiatric abuse?|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|year=1987|month=7 November|volume=295|issue=6607|page=1164|pmid=3120927|pmc=1248242|accessdate=27 February 2011|doi=10.1136/bmj.295.6607.1164}}</ref>

<ref name="Ball">{{cite book|last1=Ball|first1=Terence|last2=Farr|first2=James|title=After Marx|year=1984|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=0521276616|page=258|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w4M4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258}}</ref>

<ref name="Berman">{{cite book|last1=Berman|first1=Harold|last2=Spindler|first2=James|title=Soviet Criminal Law and Procedure; The Rsfsr Codes|year=1972|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674826361|page=11|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nx0gnXpMbnsC&pg=PA11}}</ref>

<ref name="Billington">{{cite news|last=Billington|first=Michael|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/2009/jan/19/review-every-good-boy-deserves-favour|accessdate=21 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=Monday 19 January 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="Bloch 1977">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Psychiatric terror: how Soviet psychiatry is used to suppress dissent|year=1977|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0465064884|pages=235, 328|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1jcQAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Bloch 1984">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse: the shadow over world psychiatry|year=1984|publisher=V. Gollancz|isbn=0575032537|page=218|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Uv7aAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Bloch 1985">{{cite book|last1=Bloch|first1=Sidney|last2=Reddaway|first2=Peter|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse: the shadow over world psychiatry|year=1985|publisher=Westview Press|page=273|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rgc1AAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Bloch 1990">{{cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Sidney|title=Athens and beyond: Soviet psychiatric abuse and the World Psychiatric Association|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1990|volume=14|issue=3|pages=129–133|doi=10.1192/pb.14.3.12|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/14/3/129.pdf|accessdate=6 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Blomfield">{{cite news|last=Blomfield|first=Adrian|title=Labelled mad for daring to criticise the Kremlin|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1560192/Labelled-mad-for-daring-to-criticise-the-Kremlin.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=13 August 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law]]|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=24 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Brintlinger">{{cite book|last1=Brintlinger|first1=Angela|last2=Vinitsky|first2=Ilya|title=Madness and the mad in Russian culture|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=0802091407|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ED3U_XVLwHwC&pg=PA292}}</ref>

<ref name="Brodsky">{{cite book|last1=Brodsky|first1=Joseph|authorlink1=Joseph Brodsky|last2=Haven|first2=Cynthia|title=Joseph Brodsky: conversations|year=2002|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=1578065283|pages=xviii|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=97hn9almZX0C&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

<ref name="Bukovsky">{{cite book|last=Bukovsky|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Bukovsky|title=To build a castle: my life as a dissenter|year=1988|publisher=Ethics and Public Policy Center|isbn=0896331318|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QR0BAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Burns">{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=John|title=Moscow silencing psychiatry critics|journal=The New York Times|year=1981|month=26 July |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/26/world/moscow-silencing-psychiatry-critics.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=1 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Bursten">{{cite book|last=Bursten|first=Ben|title=Psychiatry on trial: fact and fantasy in the courtroom|year=2001|publisher=McFarland|isbn=0786410787|pages=151–152|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hLZnornC1FEC&pg=PA151}}</ref>

<ref name="Calloway">{{cite book|last=Calloway|first=Paul|title=Russian/Soviet and Western psychiatry: a contemporary comparative study|year=1993|publisher=Wiley|page=223|isbn=0471595748|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6WhFAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Caute">{{cite book|last=Caute|first=David|title=The dancer defects: the struggle for cultural supremacy during the Cold War|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0199278830|page=359|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=i_lkfAD0oYUC&pg=PA359}}</ref>

<ref name="Christenson">{{cite book|last=Christenson|first=Ron|title=Political trials: Gordian knots in the law|year=1999|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0765804735|page=29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nV2a3E-S6LAC&pg=PA29}}</ref>

<ref name="Cold War">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Cold War in Psychiatry: Human Factors, Secret Actors|year=2010|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=9042030488|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ru3-kQAACAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Complete Review">{{cite web|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour by Tom Stoppard|url=http://www.complete-review.com/reviews/stoppt/egbdf.htm|publisher=[[The Complete Review]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Craig">{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Craig|authorlink=Craig Thomas|title=Firefox Down|year=1983|publisher=Bantam Books|location=New York|isbn=0553170953}}</ref>

<ref name="Crazy">[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-psychiatry30may30,1,3925644.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Speak Out? Are You Crazy?] - by Kim Murphy, Los Angeles Times, May 30, 2006</ref>

<ref name="Declaration in BMJ">{{cite journal|title=Declaration of Hawaii: Declaration adopted unanimously by the General Assembly of the World Psychiatric Association at the Sixth World Congress of Psychiatry, 1977|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|year=1977|month=5 November|volume=2|issue=6096|pages=1204–1205|pmid=589089|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1632165}}</ref>

<ref name="Declaration in JME">{{cite journal|title=Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|month=June|volume=4|issue=2|pages=71–73|pmid=671474|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1154636|year=1978}}</ref>

<ref name="Declaration in PB">{{cite journal|title=World Psychiatric Association: The Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Psychiatric Bulletin]]|year=1978|volume=2|issue=1|pages=12–13|doi=10.1192/pb.2.1.1|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/2/1/12.pdf|accessdate=19 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Dissent3">[http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article2816669.ece Russian dissident 'forcibly detained in mental hospital'] - By Alastair Gee, The Independent, July 30, 2007</ref>

<ref name="Dissent4">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6925779.stm Psychiatric abuse claim in Russia'] - BBC, 1st August 30, 2007</ref>

<ref name="Documents">{{cite journal|journal=Documents on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the USSR|year=1989|month=December|issue= 31}}</ref>

<ref name="Finckenauer">{{cite book|last=Finckenauer|first=James|title=Russian youth: law, deviance, and the pursuit of freedom|year=1995|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=1560002069|page=52|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5XKrfwsoc8C&pg=PA52}}</ref>

<ref name="Finn">{{cite news|last=Finn|first=Peter|title=In Russia, Psychiatry Is Again a Tool Against Dissent|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/29/AR2006092901592_pf.html|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=Saturday, September 30, 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="Fitzpatrick">{{cite book|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Catherine|title=Soviet abuse of psychiatry for political purposes: A Helsinki Watch report|year=1988|publisher=U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee|page=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AJkTHAAACAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Foucault, Kritzman">{{cite book|last1=Foucault|first1=Michel|authorlink1=Michel Foucault|last2=Kritzman|first2=Lawrence|authorlink2=Lawrence Kritzman|title=Politics, philosophy, culture: interviews and other writings, 1977-1984|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415901499|page=182|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HfWNHGCw55EC&pg=PA182}}</ref>

<ref name="Gee">{{cite news|last=Gee|first=Alastair|title=Russian dissident 'forcibly detained in mental hospital|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/russian-dissident-forcibly-detained-in-mental-hospital-459539.html|accessdate=4 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=Monday, 30 July 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="Glasser">{{cite news|last=Glasser|first=Susan|title=Psychiatry's Painful Past Resurfaces in Russian Case; Handling of Chechen Murder Reminds Many of Soviet Political Abuse of Mental Health System|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/266056771.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Dec+15,+2002|accessdate=|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=Dec 15, 2002}} Translation of the article into Russian: {{cite news|title=Болезненное прошлое российской психиатрии вновь всплыло в судебном деле Буданова|url=http://www.inosmi.ru/untitled/20021215/166738.html|accessdate=12 July 2011|newspaper=[[inosmi.ru]]|date=2002-12-15|accessdate=12 July 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Gluzman, 1991">{{cite journal|last=Gluzman|first=Semyon|authorlink=Semyon Gluzman|title=Abuse of psychiatry: analysis of the guilt of medical personnel|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1991|month=December|volume=17|issue=Supplement|pages=19–20|pmid=11651120|accessdate=27 July 2011|pmc=1378165|doi=10.1136/jme.17.Suppl.19|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1378165/|}}</ref>

<ref name="Gorbanevskaya">{{cite book|last=Gorbanevskaya|first=Natalia|authorlink=Natalya Gorbanevskaya|title=Red Square at Noon|year=1970|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|isbn=0030859905|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ASnFuwe5GKEC}}</ref>

<ref name="Gosden">{{cite book|last=Gosden|first=Richard|title=Punishing the Patient: How Psychiatrists Misunderstand and Mistreat Schizophrenia|year=2001|publisher=Scribe Publications|location=Melbourne|isbn=0908011520|page=220|url=http://sites.google.com/site/punishingthepatient/home}} (The text of the book in full is available online by [http://sites.google.com/site/punishingthepatient/home click])</ref>

<ref name="Gostin">{{cite journal|last=Gostin|first=Larry|title=Soviet Psychiatric Abuse: the Shadow Over World Psychiatry|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1986|month=September|volume=12|issue=3|pages=161–162|accessdate=21 April 2011|pmc=1375367}}</ref>

<ref name="Grigorenko">{{cite book|last1=Grigorenko|first1=Elena|last2=Ruzgis|first2=Patricia|last3=Sternberg|first3=Robert|title=Psychology of Russia: past, present, future|year=1997|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=1560723890|page=72|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dMk-Z1jj3tcC&pg=PA72}}</ref>

<ref name="Grigorenko, 1982">{{cite book|last=Grigorenko|first=Petr|title=Memoirs|year=1982|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=039301570X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KurYc8531oEC}}</ref>

<ref name="Hegarty">{{cite book|last1=Hegarty|first1=Angela|last2=Leonard|first2=Siobhan|title=A human rights: an agenda for the 21st century|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1859413935|page=343|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-Mg_xkrtPocC&pg=PA343}}</ref>

<ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=9048187206|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA490}}</ref>

<ref name="Helmchen, 1978">{{cite journal|last=Helmchen|first=Hanfried|title=Declaration of Hawaii|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1978|month=December|volume=4|issue=4|pages=217–218|accessdate=19 April 2011|pmc=1154691|pmid=33270}}</ref>

<ref name="Human Rights Watch">{{cite book|title=Human Rights Watch|year=1984|publisher=[[Americas Watch]]|page=67|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=liEPAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Hunt">{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=Kathleen|title=Abandoned to the state: cruelty and neglect in Russian orphanages|year=1998|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|isbn=1564321916|pages=xii|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=bwD0NUtGMg4C&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>

<ref name="Jacobson">{{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Julius|title=Soviet communism and the socialist vision|year=1972|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0878550054|page=22|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rYFbo5FsnnAC&pg=PA22}}</ref>

<ref name="Jena">{{cite book|last=Jena|first=S.P.K.|title=Behaviour Therapy: Techniques, Research and Applications|year=2008|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=0761936246|page=86|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TATbAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Johnston">{{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Michael|title=Civil society and corruption: mobilizing for reform|year=2005|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=0761831258|page=9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PGrAc4cMDw8C&pg=PA9}}</ref>

<ref name="Kadarkay">{{cite book|last=Kadarkay|first=Árpád|title=Human rights in American and Russian political thought|year=1982|publisher=University Press of America|page=205|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HjkeAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Karatnycky">{{cite book|last1=Karatnycky|first1=Adrian|last2=Motyl|first2=Alexander|last3=Sturmthal|first3=Adolf|title=Workers' rights, East and West: a comparative study of trade union and workers' rights in Western democracies and Eastern Europe|year=1980|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0878558675|pages=55–58|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gLkrzVrWSE0C&pg=PA55}}</ref>

<ref name="Kastrup">{{cite journal|last=Kastrup|first=Marianne|title=The work of the WPA Committee to Review the Abuse of Psychiatry|journal=World Psychiatry|year=2002|volume=1|issue=2|pages=126–127|pmid=16946875|pmc=1489863|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1405124040|page=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>

<ref name="Keefer">{{cite book|last1=Keefer|first1=Janice|last2=Pavlychko|first2=Solomea|title=Two lands, new visions: stories from Canada and Ukraine|year=1998|publisher=Coteau Books|isbn=1550501348|page=312|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c3BTRn9jausC&pg=PA312}}</ref>

<ref name="Knapp">{{cite book|last=Knapp|first=Martin|title=Mental health policy and practice across Europe: the future direction of mental health care|year=2007|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|isbn=0335214673|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_KnuP8OwJbMC&pg=PA406}}</ref>

<ref name="Koryagin">{{cite journal|last=Koryagin|first=Anatoliy|authorlink=Anatoly Koryagin|title=Compulsion in psychiatry: blessing or curse?|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1990|volume=14|issue=7|pages=394–398|doi=10.1192/pb.5.2.36|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/14/7/394.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Kosserev">{{cite journal|last1=Kosserev|first1=Igor|last2=Crawshaw|first2=Ralph|title=Medicine and the Gulag|journal=[[BMJ]]|year=1994|month=24 December|volume=309|issue=6970|pages=1726–1730|pmc=2542687|accessdate=21 April 2011|pmid=7820004}}</ref>

<ref name="Kutchins">{{cite book|last1=Kutchins|first1=Herb|last2=Kirk|first2=Stuart|title=Making us crazy: DSM: the psychiatric bible and the creation of mental disorders|year=1997|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0684822806|page=293|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u6zuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Lader">{{cite journal|last=Lader|first=Malcolm|title=Prisoners of psychiatry|journal=[[The British Medical Journal]]|year=1980|month=26 July|volume=281|issue=6235|pages=298–299|pmc=1713856|accessdate=4 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Laird">{{cite book|last1=Laird|first1=Robbin|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Erik|title=Soviet foreign policy in a changing world|year=1986|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0202241661|page=79|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1TDa1YNhSjgC&pg=PA79}}</ref>

<ref name="Landau">{{cite book|last=Landau|first=Eli|title=Semyon Gluzman: the first psychiatrist in the U.S.S.R. who openly opposed Soviet abuse of psychiatry against dissenters|year=1980}}</ref>

<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book|last=Larkin|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Larkin|title=International Religious Freedom (2000): Annual Report: Submitted by the U.S. Department of State|year=2001|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=0756712297|page=369|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OTx1qbA8OW8C&pg=PA369}}</ref>

<ref name="Lavretsky">{{cite journal|last=Lavretsky|first=Helen|title=The Russian Concept of Schizophrenia: A Review of the Literature |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|year=1998|volume=24|issue=4|pages=537–557|pmid=9853788|url=http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/4/537.full.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Leichter">{{cite book|last=Leichter|first=Howard|title=A comparative approach to policy analysis: health care policy in four nations|year=1979|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=0521296013|page=232|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cfI6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232}}</ref>

<ref name="Levine">{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=Sidney|title=The Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1981|month=May|volume=5|issue=5|pages=94–95|doi=10.1192/pb.5.5.94|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/5/5/94.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Lipton">{{cite book|last=Lipton|first=Edward|title=Religious freedom in the Near East, northern Africa and the former Soviet states|year=2002|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=159033390X|page=182|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=43_j4vdkk5MC&pg=PA182}}</ref>

<ref name="Lisle">{{cite book|last=Lisle|first=Angela|title=Reflexive Practice|year=2010|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=1450091970|page=47|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=S95ozxvFzDwC&pg=PA47}}</ref>

<ref name="List">{{cite web|title=Vladimir Bukovsky: List of publications|url=http://www.thegratitudefund.org/buk-publ.html|publisher=The Gratitude Fund|accessdate=16 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1857759478|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>

<ref name="Marsh">{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=Rosalind|title=Soviet fiction since Stalin: science, politics and literature|year=1986|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0709917767|page=208|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=snsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA208}}</ref>

<ref name="McCauley">{{cite book|last=McCauley|first=Martin|title=Gorbachev|year=1998|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=058243758X|page=98|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CL3WAnYt3aAC&pg=PA98}}</ref>

<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1856491048|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA66}}</ref>

<ref name="Medvedev">{{cite book|last1=Medvedev|first1=Žores|authorlink1=Zhores Medvedev|last2=Medvedev|first2=Roi|authorlink2=Roy Medvedev|title=A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union|year=1971|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=X3KpGwAACAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Meeting">{{cite journal|title=Autumn Quarterly Meeting 1978|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1979|volume=3|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1192/pb.3.1.5|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/3/1/5.pdf|accessdate=23 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0807085928|page=14|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>

<ref name="Moran, 19 Nov. 2010">{{cite journal|last=Moran|first=Mark|title=Former Soviet Dissidents Believed APA Pressure Forced Change|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=19 November|volume=45|issue= 22|page=11|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/22/11.1.full|accessdate=20 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Moran, 3 Dec. 2010">{{cite journal|last=Moran|first=Mark|title=Historic Visit Documented Abuses, Led to Psychiatric System Reform|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=3 December|volume=45|issue= 23|pages=9, 37|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/23/9.1.full|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Munro 2000">{{cite journal|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=The Soviet Case: Prelude to a Global Consensus on Psychiatry and Human Rights|journal=Columbia Journal of Asian Law|year=2000|volume=14|issue=1|url=http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2002/china02/china0802-02.htm|accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Munro 2002">{{cite book|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=Dangerous minds: political psychiatry in China today and its origins in the Mao era|year=2002|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1564322785|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ek8BtI3moPMC&pg=PA179}}</ref>

<ref name="Nekipelov">{{cite book|last=Nekipelov|first=Viktor|authorlink=Viktor Nekipelov|title=Institute of fools: notes from the Serbsky|year=1980|publisher=Farrar, Straus, Giroux|isbn=0374177031|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QUiBQgAACAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="News Items">{{cite journal|title=News Items: Dr Semyon Gluzman|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1981|volume=5|issue=2|page=36|doi=10.1192/pb.5.2.36|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/5/2/36.pdf|accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Nikolaev">{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Nikolaev|first=Evgenij|title=Gehirnwäsche in Moskau|year=1983|publisher=Klaus Schulz Verlag|location=München|isbn=3816205011}}</ref>

<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0816064059|page=3|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>

<ref name="Nuti">{{cite book|last=Nuti|first=Leopoldo|title=The crisis of détente in Europe: from Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985|year=2009|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=0415460514|pages=29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T3k9ednYVbwC&pg=PA29}}</ref>

<ref name="Nyquist">{{cite news|last=Nyquist|first=Jeffrey|title=Marina Kalashnikova's Warning to the West|url=http://www.financialsensearchive.com/stormwatch/geo/pastanalysis/2009/0717.html|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=Global Analysis|date=2009-07-17}}</ref>

<ref name="Ougrin">{{cite journal|last1=Ougrin|first1=Dennis|last2=Gluzman|first2=Semyon|authorlink2=Semyon Gluzman|last3=Dratcu|first3=Luiz|title=Psychiatry in post-communist Ukraine: dismantling the past, paving the way for the future|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2006|month=December|volume=30|issue=12|pages=456–459|doi=10.1192/pb.30.12.456|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/30/12/456|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Parr">{{cite book|last=Parr|first=Leslie|title=Science of the Times: a New York times survey|year=1981|publisher=New York Times Books|isbn=0812907612|page=137|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fjAfAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Plyushch">{{cite book|last=Plyushch|first=Leonid|authorlink=Leonid Plyushch|title=History's carnival: a dissident's autobiography|year=1979|publisher=Collins and Harvill Press|isbn=0002621169|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2ljjAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Podrabinek">{{cite book|last=Podrabinek|first=Aleksandr|authorlink=Alexandr Podrabinek|title=Punitive medicine|year=1980|publisher=Karoma Publishers|isbn=0897200225|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XsJrAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Psychiatry used">{{cite web|title=Psychiatry used as a tool against dissent|url=http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday339.php|publisher=[[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]]|accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Records">{{cite web|title=Human Rights Watch Records: Helsinki Watch, 1952-2003|url=http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_6062290/dsc/7|publisher=[[Columbia University Libraries]]|accessdate=14 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Reddaway 2001">{{cite book|last1=Reddaway|first1=Peter|last2=Glinski|first2=Dmitri|title=The tragedy of Russia's reforms: market bolshevism against democracy|year=2001|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|isbn=1929223064|page=140|url=http://books.google.com/books?d=VEh9geWgbjgC&pg=PA140}}</ref>

<ref name="Reddaway">{{cite book|last=Reddaway|first=Peter|title=Uncensored Russia: protest and dissent in the Soviet Union: the unofficial Moscow journal, a Chronicle of current events|year=1972|publisher=American Heritage Press|page=109|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LElpAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Reich">{{cite journal|last=Reich|first=Walter|title=The world of Soviet psychiatry|journal=The New York Times|year=1983|month=30 January|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/01/30/magazine/the-world-of-soviet-psychiatry.html?pagewanted=print|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

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<ref name="Revue">{{cite book|title=Revue du développement|year=1984|publisher=Society for International Development|page=19|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SbzrAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Richter">{{cite journal|last=Richter|first=Derek|title=Political Dissenters in Mental Hospitals|journal=[[The British Journal of Psychiatry]]|year=1971|month=August|volume=119|issue=549|pages=225–226|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/119/549/225}}</ref>

<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite news|last=Rodriguez|first=Alex|title=Russian dissidents called mentally ill|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2007-08-07/news/0708070053_1_vladimir-bukovsky-soviet-labor-camps-asylum|accessdate=2 May 2011|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=August 12, 2007}}</ref>

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<ref name="Sabshin">{{cite book|last=Sabshin|first=Melvin|title=Changing American psychiatry: a personal perspective|year=2008|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=1585623075|page=95|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=fgCUrffGCfcC&pg=PA95}}</ref>

<ref name="Sagan">{{cite journal|last1=Sagan|first1=Leonard|last2=Jonsen|first2=Albert||title=Medical Ethics and Torture |journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|year=1976|month=24 June|volume=294|issue=26|pages=1427–1430|pmid=944852|pmc=|doi=10.1056/NEJM197606242942605|url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM197606242942605}}</ref>

<ref name="Schroeter">{{cite book|last=Schroeter|first=Leonard|title=The last exodus|year=1979|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=0295956852|page=324|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LOmBVENjK3sC&pg=PA324}}</ref>

<ref name="Semple">{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0198527837|page=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>

<ref name="Severe Personality Disorder">{{cite journal|last=|first=|title=Diagnosis of a "Severe Personality Disorder" as a Cause of Criminal Inresponsibility: V.K. Bukovsky|journal=The Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology|year=1992|pages=69–73|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=trNqj34bYDQC&pg=PA66|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Shaw">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=David|last2=Bloch|first2=Sidney|last3=Vickers|first3=Ann|title=Psychiatry and the state|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1972|month=2 November|volume=56|issue=818|pages=258–261|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4hD8LSniK3MC&pg=PA258|accessdate=20 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Shlapentokh">{{cite book|last=Shlapentokh|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Shlapentokh|title=Soviet intellectuals and political power: the post-Stalin era|year=1990|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1850432848|page=194|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC&pg=PA194}}</ref>

<ref name="Smythies">{{cite journal|last=Smythies|first=J.|title=Psychiatry and the neurosciences|journal=[[Psychological Medicine]]|year=1973|month=August|volume=3|issue=3|pages=267–269|pmid=4125732}}</ref>

<ref name="Soviet Political Psychiatry">{{cite book|title=Soviet Political Psychiatry: The Story of the Opposition|year=1983|publisher=[[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]], Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals|location=London|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5-JcHQAACAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Soviets Left WPA">{{cite journal|last=|first=|title=Soviets Left WPA Under Expulsion Threat|journal=Psychiatric News|year=2010|month=19 November|volume=45|issue=22|page=11|url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/45/22/11.2|accessdate=3 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Soviets">{{cite journal|title=Soviets finally condemned for psychiatric malpractices…|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1977|month=8 September|volume=75|issue= 1068|page=571|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=167YFAML_o4C&pg=PA571|accessdate=4 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Spector">{{cite book|last1=Spector|first1=Malcolm|last2=Kitsuse|first2=John|title=Constructing social problems|year=2001|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=0765807165|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZhiQcVJepyUC&pg=PA101}}</ref>

<ref name="Spencer">{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Charles |title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour at the National Theatre, review|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-reviews/6989011/Every-Good-Boy-Deserves-Favour-at-the-National-Theatre-review.html|accessdate=21 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=14 January 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Stayzhkin">{{cite journal|last=Stayzhkin|first=V.D.|title=Diagnosis of a Paranoiac (Delusional) Personality Development in the Forensic Psychiatric Expert Examination|journal=The Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology|year=1992|pages=65–68|url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=trNqj34bYDQC&pg=PA66|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Stone">{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Alan|authorlink=Alan A. Stone|title=Law, Psychiatry, and Morality: Essays and Analysis|year=1985|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=0880482095|page=8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GK3Tt0e_fOgC&pg=PA8}}</ref>

<ref name="Stone, 2002">{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=Alan|authorlink=Alan A. Stone|title=Psychiatrists on the side of the angels: the Falun Gong and Soviet Jewry |journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=107–111|pmid=11931357|doi=|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/107.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name="Struk">{{cite book|last=Struk|first=Danilo (editor)|title=Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Vol. 4|year=1993|publisher=University of Toronto Press Incorporated|location=London|isbn=0802030092|page=308|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kkgOAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Szasz">{{cite journal|last=Szasz|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Szasz|title=Psychiatric diagnosis, psychiatric power and psychiatric abuse|journal=[[Journal of Medical Ethics]]|year=1994|month=September|volume=20|issue=3|pages=135–138|pmc=1376496|accessdate=19 February 2011|pmid=7996558}}</ref>

<ref name="Tarsis">{{cite book|last=Tarsis|first=Valeriĭ|authorlink=Valery Tarsis|title=Ward 7: an autobiographical novel|year=1965|publisher=Dutton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3XuyAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="The spread">{{cite journal|title=The spread of Soviet suppression|journal=[[New Scientist]]|year=1978|month=25 May|volume=78|issue=1104|page=493|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=R0YnVUkTifgC&pg=PA493|accessdate=5 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Theatre">{{cite web|title=Every Good Boy Deserves Favour|url=http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/47002/productions/every-good-boy-deserves-favour.html|publisher=[[Royal National Theatre|The National Theatre]]|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=9024717809|pages=28–30|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA30}}</ref>

<ref name="Vitaliev">{{cite book|last=Vitaliev|first=Vitali|title=Dateline freedom|year=1991|publisher=Hutchinson|isbn=0091746779|page=148|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hInwAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Voloshanovich">{{cite journal|title=Dr Alexander Voloshanovich: A Critic of the Political Misuse of Psychiatry in the USSR|journal=Psychiatric Bulletin|year=1980|volume=4|issue=5|pages=70–71|doi=10.1192/pb.4.5.70|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/reprint/4/5/70.pdf|accessdate=20 January 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="West">{{cite book|last1=West|first1=Donald|last2=Green|first2=Richard|title=Sociolegal control of homosexuality: a multi-nation comparison|year=1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=0306455323|page=226|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AwD3FNUJjXwC&pg=PA226}}</ref>

<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Andrew|last2=Bachkatov|first2=Nina|title=Russia Revised: Alphabetical Key to the Soviet Debacle and the New Republics|year=1992|publisher=Deutsch|isbn=0233987835|page=156|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=brUjAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="Wing">{{cite book|last1=Wing|first1=John|last2=Mechanic|first2=David|title=Reasoning about Madness|year=2009|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=1412810574|page=178|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u7qvmgGdNAsC&pg=PA178}}</ref>

<ref name="Wynn">{{cite journal|last=Wynn|first=Allan|title=Imprisonment of Dr Anatoly Koryagin|journal=[[The British Medical Journal]]|year=1983|month=22 January|volume=286|issue=6361|page=309|pmc=1546518|accessdate=20 January 2011|pmid=6402080|doi=10.1136/bmj.286.6361.309-a}}</ref>

<ref name="Zdravkovska">{{cite book|last1=Zdravkovska|first1=Smilka|last2=Duren|first2=Peter|title=Golden years of Moscow mathematics|year=1993|publisher=AMS Bookstore|isbn=0821890034|page=221|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=esJxwK26zE4C&pg=PA221}}</ref>

<ref name="Ziolkowski">{{cite book|last=Ziolkowski|first=Margaret|title=Literary exorcisms of Stalinism: Russian writers and the Soviet past|year=1998|publisher=Camden House|isbn=1571131795|page=95|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x0bPvO0U-ScC&pg=PA95}}</ref>

<ref name="de Boer">{{cite book|last1=de Boer|first1=S.P.|last2=Driessen|first2=E.J.|last3=Verhaar|first3=H.L.|title=Biographical dictionary of dissidents in the Soviet Union, 1956–1975|year=1982|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9024725380|page=180|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1IQzecjGQX0C&pg=PA180}}</ref>

<ref name="torture">See: [[Sidney Bloch]] and [[Peter Reddaway]] (1984). ''Soviet Psychiatric Abuse: The Shadow over World Psychiatry''. Victor Gollancz, London.,</ref>

<ref name="van Voren 2002">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="van Voren 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Keukens|first1=Rob|last2=van Voren|first2=Robert|title=Coercion in psychiatry: still an instrument of political misuse?|journal=BMC Psychiatry|date=|year=2007|month=December|volume=7(Suppl 1)|pages=S4|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-7-S1-S4|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-244X-7-S1-S4.pdf|accessdate=21 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=9789042025851|pages= |url=http://books.google.ru/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA77}}</ref>

<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|year=2010|month=January|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119|accessdate=17 April 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="van Voren, 1987">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Koryagin: a man struggling for human dignity|year=1987|publisher=Second World Press|isbn=9071271072|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E-MdAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name="van Voren, Bloch">{{cite book|last1=van Voren|first1=Robert|last2=Bloch|first2=Sidney|title=Soviet psychiatric abuse in the Gorbachev era|year=1989|publisher=[[International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry]]|isbn=9072657012|pages=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Q2xFAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>
}}


== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==

Revision as of 16:52, 2 September 2011

In the Soviet Union, systematic political abuse of psychiatry took place.[1]: 406 [2][3][4]: 19 [5]: 47 [6]: 293 [7][8]: 66 [9]: 490 [10]: 52  Political abuse of psychiatry is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.[3][9]: 491  In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.[11] Many authors, including psychiatrists, use the terms "Soviet political psychiatry"[12][13][14]: 179 [15]: 395 [16]: 205  and "punitive psychiatry" instead.[17][18][19][20]: 60, 77 [21]: 243, 252 [22]: 72 [23]: 148 [24]: 10, 57, 136 [25]: 92, 95, 98 [26]: 292, 293, 294 [27]: 226 [28]: 258  In the book Punitive Medicine by Alexander Podrabinek, the term “punitive medicine” identified with the term “punitive psychiatry” is defined as “a tool in the struggle against dissidents who cannot be punished by legal means.”[24]: 63  Punitive psychiatry is not a special subject, not some special psychiatry but a phenomenon arising with many applied sciences in totalitarian countries where they are often forced to serve a criminal regime.[17]

Psychiatric confinement of sane people is uniformly considered a particularly pernicious form of repression[2] and Soviet punitive psychiatry was one of the key weapons of both illegal and legal repression.[27]: 226  Soviet psychiatric hospitals were used by the authorities as prisons in order to isolate hundreds or thousands of political prisoners from the rest of society, discredit their ideas, and break them physically and mentally.[29] This method was also employed against religious prisoners, including especially well-educated former atheists who adopted a religion; in such cases their religious faith was determined to be a form of mental illness that needed to be cured.[30]

Following the fall of the Soviet Union, it was often reported that some opposition activists and journalists were detained in Russian psychiatric institutions in order to intimidate and isolate them from society.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39] In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.[40]

Background

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.[8]: 65  The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.[8]: 65  In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.[41]: 94  In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.[8]: 65  In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.[8]: 66  Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.[42]: 6  As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.[43]: 14  Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.[44]: 3 

Dissidents were locked away in psychiatric wards, the so-called psikhushka.[45]: 32  Psikhushka is Russian ironic diminutive for "mental hospital".[46]: xii  One of the first psikhushkas was the Psychiatric Prison Hospital in the city of Kazan. It was transferred to NKVD control in 1939 under the order of Lavrentiy Beria.[47] International human rights defenders such as Walter Reich have long recorded the methods by which Soviet psychiatrists in Psikhushka hospitals diagnosed schizophrenia in political dissenters.[43]: 14 

As early as 1948, the Soviet secret service took an interest in this area of medicine.[1]: 402  It was one of the superiors of the Soviet secret police, Andrey Vyshinsky, who commanded to use psychiatry as a tool of repression.[9]: 495  A system of political abuse of psychiatry was developed at the end of Joseph Stalin's regime.[48] According to Alexander Etkind, punitive psychiatry was not inherited from the Stalin period that simply did not require such an expensive substitute for the GULAG (the acronym for Chief Administration for Corrective Labor Camps, the penitentiary system in the Stalin years).[22]: 72  The abuse of psychiatry was a natural product of the later Soviet era.[22]: 72  From the mid-1970s to the 1990s, the structure of mental health service conformed to the double standard in society, that of two separate systems which peacefully co-existed despite conflicts between them:

  1. the first system was punitive psychiatry that straight served the institute of power and was led by the Moscow Institute for Forensic Psychiatry named after Serbsky;
  2. the second system was composed of elite, psychotherapeutically oriented clinics and was led by the Leningrad Psychoneurological Institute named after Vladimir Bekhterev.[22]: 72 

The hundreds of hospitals in provinces combined components of both systems.[22]: 72 

Joint Session

Ivan Pavlov (1849—1936), a Russian physiologist in the name of whom the Joint Session was held on October 11–15, 1951

A precursor of later abuses in psychiatry in the Soviet Union and the most somber event in the history of Russian-Soviet psychiatry was the so-called "Joint Session" of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the Board of the All-Union Neurologic and Psychiatric Association, held in the name of Ivan Pavlov in October 1951, considered the matter of several leading neuroscientists and psychiatrists of the time (for example, G. Sukhareva, V. Gilyarovsky, R. Golant, A. Shmaryan, M. Gurevich) who were charged with practicing "anti-Pavlovian, anti-Marxist, idealistic, reactionary" science damaging to Soviet psychiatry.[49]: 540  These talented psychiatrists had to admit publicly to their wrong beliefs and mistakes and promise to profess only Pavlov's teaching.[49]: 540  During the Joint Session, scientists falsely acknowledged their "wrongdoings" and gave up their beliefs, out of fear.[49]: 540  But in the closing speech, the lead author of the policy report A. Snezhnevsky stated that they “have not disarmed themselves and continue to remain in the old anti-Pavlovian positions”, thereby causing “grave damage to the Soviet scientific and practical psychiatry”, and the vice president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences accused them that they “diligently fall down to the dirty source of American pseudo-science”.[50] The fear and less than noble ambitions of the accusers including I. Strelchuk, V. Banshchikov, O. Kerbikov, and A. Snezhnevsky were also likely to make them serve in the role of inquisitors.[49]: 540  Not surprisingly, many of them were advanced and appointed to leadership positions shortly after the session.[49]: 540 

The Joint Session also affected neuroscience in such a way that the best neuroscientists of the time, such as academicians P. Anokhin, А. Speransky, L. Stern, I. Beritashvili, and L. Orbeli, who headed various scientific directions at that time, were labeled as anti-Pavlov, anti-materialist and reactionaries, and discharged from their positions.[49]: 540  These scientists lost their laboratories, and some were subjected to tortures in prisons.[49]: 540  The Moscow, Leningrad, Ukrainian, Georgian, and Armenian schools of neuroscience and neurophysiology were damaged, at least for a while.[49]: 540  The Joint Session ravaged productive research in neurosciences and psychiatry for years to come.[49]: 540  It was pseudoscience that took over.[49]: 540 

After the joint session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences on June 28 — July 4, 1950 and during the session of the Presidium of the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Board of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists on October 11–15, 1951, the leading role was given to Snezhnevky's school.[51]: 101  The 1950 decision to give monopoly over psychiatry to the Pavlovian school of Andrei Snezhnevsky was one of crucial factors of the onset of political psychiatry.[9]: 494  The Soviet doctors, under the incentive of A.V. Sneznevsky, devised "Pavlovian theory of schizophrenia" on the strength of which they diagnosticated this illness in political oppositionists.[52]: 30 

Sluggish schizophrenia

"The incarceration of free thinking healthy people in madhouses is spiritual murder, it is a variation of the gas chamber, even more cruel; the torture of the people being killed is more malicious and more prolonged. Like the gas chambers, these crimes will never be forgotten and those involved in them will be condemned for all time during their life and after their death."[53] (Alexander Solzhenitsyn)

Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia" in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.[54]: 77  It was the diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia" that was most prominently used in cases of dissidents.[55] The leading critics implied that Snezhnevsky had designed the Soviet model of schizophrenia and this diagnosis to make political dissent into a mental disease.[56]

According Robert van Voren, the political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR arose from the conception that people who opposed the Soviet regime were mentally sick since there was no other logical rationale why one would oppose the sociopolitical system considered the best in the world.[3] The diagnosis "sluggish schizophrenia," a longstanding concept further developed by the Moscow School of Psychiatry and particularly by its chief Andrei Snezhnevsky, furnished a very handy framework for explaining this behavior.[3]

Although majority of experts agree that the basic group of psychiatrists that developed this concept did so on the instructions of the Soviet secret service KGB and the party and understood very well what they were doing, this seemed to many Soviet psychiatrists to be a very logical explanation as they were not able to explain to themselves otherwise why someone would be willing to abandon his happiness, family, and career for a conviction or idea which was so different from what most individuals believed or made themselves believe.[3]

A. Snezhnevsky, the most prominent theorist of Soviet psychiatry and director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, developed a novel classification of mental disorders postulating an original set of diagnostic criteria.[57] The Soviet model of schizophrenia is based on the hypothesis that a single fundamental characteristic, by which schizophrenia spectrum disorders are distinguished clinically, is their longitudinal course.[49]: 543  The hypothesis implies that there are three main types of schizophrenia:

  1. the continuous type that is defined as unremitting, proceeding with either a rapid (“malignant”) or a slow (“sluggish”) progression and has a poor prognosis in both instances;
  2. the periodic, or recurrent type that is characterized by an acute attack followed by full remission with minimal progression, if any;
  3. the mixed, or shift-like, type (“schubweise” — in German “schub” means phase or attack), a mixture of continuous and periodic types that occurs periodically and is characterized by only partial remission.[49]: 543 

This systematization of schizophrenia types attributed to Snezhnevsky[58]: 278  is still used in Russia[59]: 371  and refers sluggish schizophrenia to the continuous type.[60]: 414 

A carefully crafted description of sluggish schizophrenia established that psychotic symptoms were non-essential for the diagnosis, but symptoms of psychopathy, hypochondria, depersonalization or anxiety were central to it.[57] Symptoms referred to as part of the "negative axis" included pessimism, poor social adaptation, and conflict with authorities, and were themselves sufficient for a formal diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia with scanty symptoms."[57]

According to Snezhnevsky, patients with sluggish schizophrenia could present as quasi sane yet manifest minimal but clinically relevant personality changes which could remain unnoticed to the untrained eye.[57] Thereby patients with non-psychotic mental disorders, or even persons who were not mentally sick, could be easily labelled with the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia.[57] Along with paranoia, sluggish schizophrenia was the diagnosis most frequently used for the psychiatric incarceration of dissenters.[57]

As per the theories of Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, schizophrenia was much more prevalent than previously considered since the illness could be presented with comparatively slight symptoms and only progress afterwards.[3] As a consequence, schizophrenia was diagnosed much more often in Moscow than in other countries, as the World Health Organization Pilot Study on Schizophrenia reported in 1973.[3]

In particular, the scope was widened by sluggish schizophrenia because according to Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, patients with this diagnosis were capable of functioning almost normally in the social sense.[3] Their symptoms could be like those of a neurosis or could assume a paranoid character.[3] The patients with paranoid symptoms retained some insight into their condition but overestimated their own significance and could manifest grandiose ideas of reforming society.[3] Thereby, sluggish schizophrenia could have such symptoms as "reform delusions," "perseverance," and "struggle for the truth."[3]

As V.D. Stayzhkin reported, Snezhnevsky diagnosticated a reformation delusion for every case when a patient "develops a new principle of human knowledge, drafts an academy of human happiness, and many other projects for the benefit of mankind."[61]: 66 

In the 1960s and 1970s, theories, which contained ideas about reforming society and struggling for truth, and religious convictions were not referred to delusional paranoid disorders in practically all foreign classifications, but Soviet psychiatry, proceeding from ideological conceptions, referred critique of political system and proposals to reform this system to delusional construct.[20]: 19  Diagnostic approaches of conception of sluggish schizophrenia and paranoiac states with delusion of reformism were used only in the Soviet Union and several Eastern European countries.[20]: 18 

American psychiatrist Alan A. Stone stated that Western criticism of Soviet psychiatry aimed at Sneznevsky personally, because he was essentially responsible for the Soviet concept of schizophrenia with a "sluggish type" manifestation by "reformerism" including other symptoms.[62]: 8  One can readily apply this diagnostic scheme to dissenters.[62]: 8  Snezhnevsky was long attacked in the West as an exemplar of psychiatric abuse in the USSR.[55] He was charged with cynically developing a system of diagnosis which could be bent for political purposes, and he himself diagnosed or was involved in a series of famous dissident cases, including those of the biologist Zhores Medvedev, the mathematician Leonid Plyushch,[55] and Vladimir Bukovsky whom Snezhnevsky diagnosed as schizophrenic on 5 July 1962.[63]: 70  In 1980, the Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry, established by the Royal College of Psychiatrists in 1978, charged Snezhnevsky with involvement in the abuse[64]: 223  and recommended that Snezhnevsky, who had been honoured as a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, be invited to attend the College's Court of Electors to answer criticisms because he was responsible for the compulsory detention of this celebrated dissident, Leonid Plyushch.[65] Instead Snezhnevsky chose to resign his Fellowship.[65]

Normative documents

File:Andropov1.jpg
Yuri Andropov (1914–1984), the KGB Chairman and General Secretary of the CPSU

In May 1967, Yuri Andropov became the KGB Chairman.[66]: 29  On 3 July 1967, he made a proposal to establish for dealing with the political opposition the KGB’s Fifth Directorate[66]: 29  (ideological counterintelligence)[67]: 177 . At the end of July, the directorate was established and entered in its files cases of all Soviet dissidents including Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn.[66] In 1968, Andropov as the KGB Chairman issued his order “On the tasks of State security agencies in combating the ideological sabotage by the adversary”, calling for struggle against dissidents and their imperialist masters.[68]: 7  He aimed to achieve “the destruction of dissent in all its forms” and insisted that the struggle for human rights had to be considered as a part of a wide-ranging imperialist plot to undermine the Soviet state’s foundation.[68]: 7 

On 29 April 1969, Andropov submitted to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union an elaborated plan for creating a network of mental hospitals to defend the “Soviet Government and socialist order” from dissenters.[67]: 177  The proposal by Andropov to use psychiatry for struggle against dissenters was implemented.[20]: 42 

On 15 May 1969, there was issued Decree No. 345–209 on "measures for preventing dangerous behaviour (acts) on the part of mentally ill persons."[52]: 28  This Decree ratified the practice of having undesirables hauled into detention by psychiatrists.[52]: 28  Under this practice, the psychiatrists were told whom they should examine, and they might fetch this individual with the assistance of the police or entrap him to come to the hospital.[52]: 28  The psychiatrists doubled as interrogators and as arresting officers.[52]: 28  The doctors fabricated a diagnosis requiring internment, and no court judgment was required for confining the individual indefinitely.[52]: 28 

Cases

Sergei Pisarev

Cases of political abuse of psychiatry have been known since the 1940s and 1950s, including case of Sergei Pisarev, a party official who was arrested after criticizing the work of the Soviet secret police in the context of the so-called Doctors' Plot, an anti-Semitic campaign propelled at Stalin's instructions which should have brought about a new terror wave in the Soviet Union and possibly the extermination of the remaining Jewish communes that had outlived the Second World War.[9]: 496  Pisarev was committed to the Special Psychiatric Hospital in Leningrad which along with an analogous hospital in Sychevka has started functioning since the Second World War.[9]: 496  After his discharge, Pisarev began a campaign against political abuse of psychiatry, concentrating himself on the Serbsky Institute which he viewed to be the seat of the trouble.[9]: 496  As a consequence of his efforts, the Central Committee of the Communist Party constituted a committee which investigated the situation and came to the conclusion that the political abuse of psychiatry was actually taking place.[9]: 496  The report, however, vanished in a desk drawer and never brought about any action taken.[9]: 496 

Mass abuse onset

The campaign to declare political opponents mentally sick and to commit dissenters to mental hospitals began in the late 1950s and early 1960s.[1]: 402  As Vladimir Bukovsky, commenting on the nascency of the political abuse of psychiatry, wrote, Nikita Khrushchev reckoned that it was impossible for people in a socialist society to have anti-socialist consciousness, and whenever manifestations of dissidence could not be justified as a provocation of world imperialism or a legacy of the past, they were merely the product of mental disease.[1]: 402  In his speech published in the state newspaper Pravda on 24 May 1959, Khrushchev said:

A crime is a deviation from generally recognized standards of behaviour frequently caused by mental disorder. Can there be diseases, nervous disorders among certain people in a Communist society? Evidently yes. If that is so, then there will also be offences, which are characteristic of people with abnormal minds. Of those who might start calling for opposition to Communism on this basis, we can say that clearly their mental state is not normal.[1]: 402 

The Serbsky Central Research Institute for Forensic Psychiatry, also briefly called the Serbsky Institute (the part of its building in Moscow)

Practically in all cases, dissidents were examined in the Serbsky Central Research Institute for Forensic Psychiatry[20]: 78  which conducted forensic-psychiatric expert evaluation of persons brought to justice under political articles.[20]: 30  Certified, the persons were sent for involuntary treatment to special hospitals of the system of MVD of the Russian Federation.[20]: 30  In 1960s and 1970s, the trials of dissenters and their referral for “treatment” to special psychiatric hospitals of the system of MVD came out into the open before the world public, and information of “psychiatric terror,” which the leadership of the institute was flatly denying, began to appear.[20]: 41  The majority of psychiatric repressions date from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.[20]: 30 

According to dissident poet Naum Korzhavin, the atmosphere at the Serbsky Institute in Moscow altered almost overnight when a Daniil Lunts became chief of the Fourth Department otherwise known as the Political Department.[1]: 402  Previously, psychiatric departments had been regarded as a 'refuge' against being dispatched to the Gulag, but thenceforth that policy altered.[1]: 402  The first reports of dissenters being hospitalized on non-medical grounds date from the early 1960s, not long after Georgi Morozov was appointed director of the Serbsky Institute.[1]: 402  Both Morozov and Lunts were personally involved in numerous well-known cases and were notorious abusers of psychiatry for political purposes.[1]: 402  Daniil Lunts was characterized by Viktor Nekipelov as "no better than the criminal doctors who performed inhuman experiments on the prisoners in Nazi concentration camps."[69]

Pyotr Grigorenko

File:GrigirenkoPetrZina043.jpg
Pyotr Grigorenko (1907–1987), a member of the Moscow Helsinki Group and political prisoner

In 1961, Pyotr Grigorenko started to openly criticize what he considered the excesses of the Khrushchev regime.[70]: 151  He maintained that the special privileges of the political elite did not comply with the principles laid down by Lenin.[70]: 151  Grigorenko formed a dissident group — The Group for the Struggle to Revive Leninism.[70]: 151  Soviet psychiatrists sitting as legally constituted commissions to inquire into his sanity diagnosed him at least three times — in April 1964, August 1969, and November 1969.[62]: 11  When arrested, Grigorenko was sent to Moscow's Lubyanka prison, and from there for psychiatric examination to the Serbsky Institute[70]: 151  where the first commission, which included Snezhnevsky and Lunts, diagnosed him as suffering from the mental disease in the form of a paranoid delusional development of his personality, accompanied by early signs of cerebral arteriosclerosis.[62]: 11  Lunts, reporting later on this diagnosis, mentioned that the symptoms of paranoid development were "an overestimation of his own personality reaching messianic proportions" and "reformist ideas."[62]: 11  Grigorenko was irresponsible for his actions and was thereby forcibly committed to a special psychiatric hospital.[70]: 151  While there, the government deprived him of his pension despite the fact that, by law, a mentally sick military officer was entitled to a pension.[70]: 152  After six months, Grigorenko was found to be in remission and was released for outpatient follow-up.[70]: 152  He required that his pension be restored.[70]: 152  Although he began to draw pension again, it was severely cut.[70]: 152  He became much more active in his dissidence, stirred other people to protest the some of the State's actions and received several warnings from the KGB.[70]: 152  As Grigorenko had followers in Moscow, he was lured to Tashkent, half a continent away.[70]: 152  Again he was arrested and examined by psychiatric team.[70]: 152  None of the manifestations or symptoms cited by the Lunts commission were found by the second commission held in Tashkent under the chairmanship of Fyodor Detengof.[62]: 12  The diagnosis and evaluation made by the commission was that "Grigorenko's [criminal] activity had a purposeful character, it was related to concrete events and facts… It did not reveal any signs of illness or delusions."[62]: 12  The psychiatrists reported that he was not mentally sick, but responsible for his actions.[70]: 152  He had firm convictions which were shared by many of his colleagues and were not delusional.[70]: 152  Having evaluated the records of his preceding hospitalization, they concluded that he had not been sick at that time either.[70]: 152  The KGB brought Grigorenko back in Moscow and, three months later, arranged a second examination at the Serbsky Institute.[70]: 152  Once again, these psychiatrists found that he had "a paranoid development of the personality" manifested by reformist ideas.[70]: 152  The commission, which included Lunts and was chaired by Morozov, recommended that he be recommitted to a special psychiatric hospital for the socially dangerous.[62]: 12  Eventually, after almost four years, he was transferred to a usual mental hospital.[70]: 152 

In 1979 in New York, Grigorenko was examined by the team of psychologists and psychiatrists including Alan A. Stone, the then President of American Psychiatric Association.[71]: 74  The team came to conclusion that they could find no evidence of mental disease in Grigorenko and his history consistent with mental disease in the past.[71]: 74 

In 1981, Pyotr Grigorenko told about his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations in his memoirs V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys (In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats)[72] translated into English under the title Memoirs in 1982.[73]

Only in 1992, the official post-mortem forensic psychiatric commission of experts met at Grigorenko’s homeland removed the stigma of mental patient from him and confirmed that the debilitating treatment he underwent in high security psychiatric hospitals for many years was groundless.[20]: 23  The 1992 psychiatric examination of Grigorenko was described by the Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal in its numbers 1–4 of 1992.[74][75]

Viktor Rafalsky

Viktor Rafalsky, a political prisoner, dissident and author of unpublished plays, novels, and short stories, was committed to Soviet psychiatric prisons in Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, and Leningrad for 24 years because of belonging to a clandestine Marxist group (from 1954 to 1959), writing anti-Soviet prose (from 1962 to 1965), and possessing anti-Soviet literature (from 1968 to 1983).[76]: 308  In the winter of 1987, he was discharged and pronounced sane.[76]: 308  In 1988, Viktor Rafalsky published the first version of his memoirs Reportazh iz Niotkuda (Reportage from Nowhere)[20]: 219  describing his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.[77]

Joseph Brodsky

Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996), a Russian poet, American essayist, and the 1987 Nobel laureate in Literature

At the very end of 1963, the poet Joseph Brodsky was committed for observation to the Kashchenko psychiatric clinic in Moscow where he stayed for several days.[26]: 91  A few weeks later, his second hospitalization took place: on 13 February he was arrested in Leningrad and on 18 February the Dzerzhinsky District Court sent him for psychiatric examination to "Pryazhka," Psychiatric Hospital No. 2 where he spent about three weeks, from 18 February to 13 March.[26]: 91  In the mental hospitals, Brodsky was given "tranquilizing" injections, wakened in the middle of the night, immersed into a cold bath, wrapped in a wet sheet, and put next to the heater so that the sheet would cut into his body when it dries.[78]: xviii  These two stints at psychiatric establishments formed the experience underlying Gorbunov and Gorchakov written and called by Brodsky "an extremely serious work."[26]: 90 . In 1972, when the authorities considered Brodsky for exile and sought an expert opinion on his mental health, they consulted Snezhnevsky who, without examining him personally, diagnosed him as schizophrenic and concluded that he was "not valuable person at all and may be let go."[26]: 92 

Valery Tarsis

Valery Tarsis (1906–1983), a Russian writer and translator

In 1965 in the West, strong public awareness that Soviet psychiatry could be subject to political abuse arose with publication of the book Ward 7[79] by Valery Tarsis, a writer born in 1906 in Kiev.[51]: 140  He based the book upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.[51]: 140 

The fictionalised documentary Ward No. 7 by Tarsis was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.[80]: 208  In a parallel with the story Ward No. 6 by Anton Chekhov, Tarsis implies that it is the doctors who are mad, whereas the patients are completely sane, although unsuited to a life of slavery.[80]: 208  Individuals in ward No. 7 are not cured, but persistently maimed; the hospital is a jail and the doctors are gaolers and police spies.[80]: 208  Most doctors know nothing about psychiatry, but make diagnoses arbitrarily and give all patients the same medication — an algogenic injection or the anti-psychotic drug aminazin[80]: 208  known in English as Thorazine.[81]: 137  Tarsis denounces Soviet psychiatry as pseudo-science and charlatanism and writes that, firstly, it has pretenses of curing the sickness of men's souls, but denies the existence of the soul; secondly, since there is no satisfactory definition of mental health, there can be no acceptable definition of mental disease in Soviet society.[80]: 208 

In 1966, Tarsis was permitted to emigrate to the West, and was soon deprived of his Soviet citizenship.[51]: 140  As the 1966 memorandum to the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union reported, "KGB continues arrangements for further compromising Tarsis abroad as a mentally ill person."[82]

Evgeni Belov

Shortly after publishing Ward 7, a second case of political abuse of psychiatry gave rise to attention in Great Britain.[51]: 140  Evgeni Belov, a young Moscow interpreter contracted by a group of four British students, made friends with them.[51]: 140  At first he was positive about Soviet system, but gradually became more critical and began to voice demand for more freedom.[51]: 140  Calling for a free press and free trade unions, Belov began to write letters to the Party.[51]: 140  As a consequence, his membership in the Party was suspended and he was summoned to appear before a committee.[51]: 140  He declined, and instead sought justice higher up by writing protest letters to Leonid Brezhnev himself.[51]: 140  When British students returned from a short trip to Tokyo, Belov had vanished.[51]: 140  To their shock, it emerged that he had been committed to a mental hospital.[51]: 140  A campaign to get him out yielded no results.[51]: 140  A British newspaper published a letter in which Belov's father stated that his son was really sick, and the campaign came to a grinding halt.[51]: 140  However, the public interest had been activated.[51]: 140 

Alexander Esenin-Volpin

File:Volpin.jpg
Alexander Esenin-Volpin (b. 1924), a Professor of mathematics at Boston University and former Soviet human rights activist and political prisoner

Awareness in the West was also raised by the case of Alexander Esenin-Volpin, a son of the famous Russian poet Sergei Esenin and born in 1924.[51]: 140  In 1946, he was first committed to the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital for writing poem considered anti-Soviet.[51]: 140  During Khrushchev's reign, Esenin-Volpin was later hospitalized three times: in 1957, in 1959–1960 in the same the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital and, finally, in 1962–1963.[51]: 141  In 1968, Esenin-Volpin was again hospitalized, and for this once his case achieved the attention in the West.[51]: 141  In February 1968, 99 Soviet mathematicians and scientists signed a protest letter to the Soviet officials demanding his release.[51]: 141 [83]: 221  After a wave of protests, he was discharged and permitted to immigrate to the USA where he obtained the position of professor of mathematics.[51]: 141  In 2010, Alexander Magalif, who hospitalized Esenin-Volpin, recollected that he had seen a little mark made by a pencil in the corner of the referral to treatment of Esenin-Volpin: "not to discharge from the hospital without coordination with KGB."[19]

Yuli Daniel

In 1965, the writer Yuli Daniel was arrested due to his satirical anti-Stalinist works and outspoken protest at the human rights abuse in the USSR.[84] Daniel was kept in a mental hospital of the Gulag where he was refused medical treatment in order to destroy his will.[84]

Viktor Fainberg

The Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital of Prison Type of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs in the past (The St Petersburg Psychiatric Hospital of Specialized Type with Intense Observation at the present time)

Viktor Fainberg was one of the seven persons who demonstrated on Red Square in Moscow in 1968 against the intervention into Czechoslovakia.[85]: 77  He was committed for compulsory treatment to the Special Psychiatric Hospital in Leningrad where he was confined for five years.[85]: 77  During his confinement, a psychiatrist working in the establishment, Marina Voikhanskaya, fell in love with him and helped him as much as she could.[85]: 77  After his discharge, they married and emigrated to the United Kingdom.[85]: 77  When they had divorced, Viktor moved to Paris and Marina remained in the United Kingdom.[85]: 77 

AGDHR members

In 1968, the human rights movement in the USSR focused directly on Soviet political psychiatry, organizing public protests and writing international bodies.[15]: 395  In 1969, a group of about 14 activists including Sergei Kovalyov, a future Russian human rights ombudsman, constituted the Action Group for the Defence of Human Rights in the USSR.[86]: 343  The group composed a first samizdat (self-published) human rights bulletin, the Chronicle of Current Events.[86]: 343  Among the members of the Action Group were individuals who subsequently fell victim to psychiatric abuse themselves: the poetess Natalya Gorbanevskaya who in 1968 demonstrated on Red Square against bringing Soviet tanks into Czechoslovakia; Vladimir Borisov who later was one of the founders of the independent labor movement in the Soviet Union; Vladimir Maltsev, a translator; and Leonid Plyushch, a Ukrainian cyberneticist who was committed to the Special Psychiatric Hospital of Dnepropetrovsk and was awfully tortured with neuroleptics.[51]: 141 

Valeria Novodvorskaya

Valeriya Novodvorskaya (b. 1950), a Russian politician and former Soviet human rights activist and political prisoner

In 1968, Valeria Novodvorskaya created an underground student organization whose purpose was to overthrow the Soviet state.[87]: 98  On 5 December 1969, she was arrested in the Palace of Congresses, where before the start of a performance of the opera October she was handing out and scattering leaflets written in verse form until she was approached by KGB men.[88]: 109  She was later sentenced to indefinite detention in the prison psychiatric hospital in Kazan.[88]: 109  Her experience in this hospital was described[89] in her largest collection of writings entitled Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya (Beyond Despair).[90]: 140  Novodvorskaya was also committed in mental hospital later, in 1978 as a member of the Free Interprofessional Association of Workers[91]: 55  and in September 1990 as a person responsible "for insulting President"; at that time she was discharged after the 1991 putsch.[92]: 156 

In the early 1990s, psychiatrists of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia and G. N. Sotsevich proved the absence of mental illness in Novodvorskaya.[74]

Natalya Gorbanevskaya

Natalya Gorbanevskaya (b. 1936), a Russian poetess and former Soviet human rights activist and political prisoner

After the Red Square demonstration against the invasion into Czechoslovakia, August 1968 saw the arrest of Natalya Gorbanevskaya well known in the West due to her book Red Square at Noon describing the demonstration.[93] A few days later, the Serbsky Institute found her non-accountable and made diagnosis of "deep psychopathy—the presence of mild, chronic schizophrenic process cannot be excluded."[93] She was allowed to return to the care of her mother.[93] In November 1969, a psychiatric commission again examined her, diagnosed "psychopathic personality with symptoms of hysteria and a tendency to decompensation", but considered that psychiatric hospitalization was not required.[93] A month later, she was again arrested and sent to the Serbky Institute for psychiatric examination in April 1970.[93] The investigating commission chaired by Morozov found her non-responsible and suffering from "chronic, mental illness in the form of schizophrenia."[93] The commission found in her the presence of changes in the thinking processes and in the critical and emotional faculties characteristic of schizophrenia.[93] It was concluded that Gorbanevskaya took part in the Red Square demonstration in a state of the mental disease.[93]

Zhores Medvedev

On 29 May 1970, Zhores Medvedev, an internationally respected and prominent scientist, was forcibly taken from his apartment in Obninsk and committed to a mental hospital where he was held, without legitimate medical justification, until 17 June 1970.[94]: 232  The leadership was instantly faced with the action of strong collective protest initiated by top Soviet scientists including Igor Tamm and Pyotr Kapitsa.[95]: 22  Medvedev's release was achieved only after intense pressure from intellectuals and scientists both within and outside of the USSR.[94]: 232  He was largely hospitalized because of the publication abroad of his book of Trofim Lysenko.[96]: 95  In widely circulated books, Zhores Medvedev had criticized the "geneticist" Lysenko and had also expressed his straightforward disagreement with restrictions on communication with scientists abroad.[97]: 178  He was removed from his position as head of a laboratory at the Institute of Medical Radiology and this removal was illegal, he said.[97]: 178  The diagnosis in the case-notes was "incipient schizophrenia," the diagnosis made by the psychiatric commission was "psychopathic personality with paranoid tendencies."[97]: 178  What happened to Medvedev was not a separate incident; rather, it was part, in Medvedev's words, of "the dangerous tendency of using psychiatry for political purposes, the exploitation of medicine in an alien role as a means of intimidation and punishment — a new and illegal way of isolating people for their views and convictions."[94]: 232  This experience was reflected in Zhores Medvedev's and Roy Medvedev's book A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union published by Macmillan in London in 1971.[98]

Andrei Sakharov

In 1971, renowned Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov supported a protest of two political prisoners, V. Fainberg and V. Borisov, who announced a hunger strike against "compulsory therapeutic treatment with medications injurious to mental activity" in a Leningrad psychiatric institution.[99] In 1984, after publishing an article by Andrei Sakharov in the United States urging a buildup of nuclear weapons in the West, Soviet officials declared him "a talented, but sick man."[100]: 29  When sent into internal exile to Gorky "for his own peace of mind," he received the due medical attention: "Soviet medics are taking all necessary measures to restore his health."[100]: 29 

Viktor Nekipelov

Viktor Nekipelov (1928–1989), a member of the Moscow Helsinki Group, writer, and political prisoner

Viktor Nekipelov, a well-known dissident poet, was arrested in 1973, sent to the Section 4 of the Serbsky Institute of Forensic Psychiatry for psychiatric evaluation, which lasted from 15 January to 12 March 1974, was judged sane (which he was), tried, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.[101] In 1976, he published in samizdat his book Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute[102]: 147  based on his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute[103]: 86  and translated into English in 1980.[104][105]: 312  In this account, he wrote compassionately, engagingly, and observantly of the doctors and other patients; most of the latters were ordinary criminals feigning insanity in order to be sent to a mental hospital, because hospital was a "cushy number" as against prison camps.[101] According to the President of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia Yuri Savenko, Nekipelov's book is a highly dramatic humane document, a fair story about the nest of Soviet punitive psychiatry, a mirror that psychiatrists always need to look into.[18] However according to Malcolm Lader, this book as an indictment of the Serbsky Institute hardly rises above tittle-tattle and gossip, and Nekipelov destroys his own credibility by presenting no real evidence but invariably putting the most sinister connotation on events.[101] After publishing his book, he was sentenced to the maximum punishment for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" of seven years in a labour camp and then five years in internal exile.[101]

AFTU members

In November 1977, a group of unemployed and workers led by Vladimir Klebanov, a former coalminer from the Donbas region of the Ukraine, announced the formation in the Soviet Union of the Association of Free Trade Unions of Workers (AFTU) whose purposes were to meet obligations achieved by collective bargaining; to induce workers and other employees to join free trade union associations; to implement those decisions of the Association which concern the seeking of justice and the defense of rights; to educate Association members in the spirit of irreconcilability toward wastefulness, inefficiency, deception, bureaucracy, deficiencies, and a negligent attitude toward national wealth.[91]: 55  These purposes show that AFTU was in all respects an organization whose right to exist is guaranteed by the international obligations of the Soviet Union.[91]: 56  On 19 December 1977, Klebanov along with two other workers in Donetsk was arrested by the Soviet police and released nine days later, after international protests against his incarceration.[91]: 56  Worker Gavriil Yankov was incarcerated in Moscow mental hospital for two weeks.[91]: 56  On 1 February 1978, AFTU publicly announced the institution of its organizational Charter.[91]: 56  Several days later, Klebanov was again detained by Soviet police and sent from Moscow to psychiatric prison hospital in Donetsk.[91]: 56  Group member Nikolaev and workers Pelekh and Dvoretsky were also placed under psychiatric detention.[91]: 56 

SMOT members

By October 1978 it was apparent that arrests and repressions had resulted in the dissolution of AFTU.[91]: 56  But the cause of trade union rights was to be invigorated by a new group, the Free Interprofessional Association of Workers known by its Russian acronym, SMOT, whose first press conference was held in Moscow on 28 October 1978.[91]: 56  The objectives of SMOT were to defend its members in cases of violation of their rights in different spheres of their daily activities: political, domestic, religious, spiritual, cultural, social, and economic; to look into the legal basis of the workers' complaints; to ensure that these complains were brought to the notice of relevant organizations; to facilitate a quick solution to complaints of workers; and in cases of negative results, to publicize them widely before international and Soviet public.[91]: 57  The leadership of SMOT was headed by a native of Leningrad electrician Vladimir Borisov incarcerated in Soviet mental hospitals because of his human rights activism for a total of nine years in 1960s and 1970s.[91]: 56  In November and December 1978, Soviet police searched the homes of SMOT activists, and SMOT members Vladimir Borisov, Valeriya Novodvorskaya, Albina Yakoreva, and Lev Volokhonsky were arrested and detained by Soviet authorities.[91]: 58  Both Borisov and Novodvorskaya were held in mental hospitals.[91]: 58 

Figures

At least 365 sane people were treated for "politically defined madness" in the Soviet Union, and there were surely hundreds more.[69] On basis of the available data and materials accumulated in the archives of the International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry, one can confidently conclude that thousands of dissenters were hospitalized for political reasons.[3]

From 1994 to 1995, an investigative commission of Moscow psychiatrists explored the records of five prison psychiatric hospitals in Russia and discovered about two thousand cases of political abuse of psychiatry in these hospitals alone.[3]

In 2005, Anatoly Prokopenko, referring to the Document Fund of the Central Committee of CPSU and the prison records of the three hospitals — Sychyovskaya, Leningrad and Chernyakhovsk hospitals — to which human rights activists managed to get in 1991, drew the conclusion that psychiatry had punished about twenty thousand people for purely political reasons.[106] But this is only a little part, Prokopenko said, and the data on how many people in total had been in all of sixteen prison hospitals and in one and a half thousand open type psychiatric hospitals are inaccessible to us because the secret parts of the achieves of the prison psychiatric hospitals and hospitals overall are inaccessible.[106] The figure of fifteen or twenty thousand political prisoners in psychiatric hospitals of the MVD of the USSR was presented in the book Bezumnaya Psikhiatriya (Mad Psychiatry) published by Prokopenko in 1997.[107]: 154 

According to Viktor Luneyev, actual struggle against dissent was manyfold larger than it was registered in sentences, and we do not know how many persons were kept under surveillance of secret services, held criminally liable, arrested, sent to psychiatric hospitals, expelled from their work, restricted in their rights everyway.[108]: 373  No objective counting of repressed persons is possible without fundamental analysis of archival documents.[108]: 378  The difficulty of this method is that the required data are very diverse and are not in one archive.[108]: 378  They are in the State Archive of the Russian Federation, in the archive of the Goskomstat of Russia, in the archives of the MVD of Russia, the FSB of Russia, the General Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, in the Russian Military and Historical Archive, in archives of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, in urban and regional archives, as well as in archives of the former Soviet Republics that now are independent countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Baltics.[108]: 378 

History

Soviet psychiatric abuse exposed

File:Vladimir Bukovsky small.jpg
Vladimir Bukovsky (b. 1942), a British neurophysiologist and former Soviet human rights activist and political prisoner

In 1971, Vladimir Bukovsky smuggled to the West a file of 150 pages documenting the political abuse of psychiatry.[9]: 496  The documents were photocopies of forensic reports on prominent Soviet dissidents.[109] These documents were attended with a letter by Bukovsky[110]: 470  requesting Western psychiatrists to explore the six cases documented in the file and tell whether these persons should be hospitalized or not.[9]: 497  The documents were sent by Bukovsky to The Times and, when translated by "The Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Medical Hospitals", were examined by forty-four psychiatrists from the Department of Psychiatry, Sheffield University.[111]: 101  The psychiatrists described the documents in British Journal of Psychiatry of August 1971[112] and wrote a letter to The Times.[111]: 101  In this letter published on 16 September 1971, they reported that four of the six dissidents manifested no signs or history of mental disease, and the other two had minor psychiatric problems many years ago, quite removed from the events related to their internment.[111]: 101  The group of British psychiatrists concluded: "It seems to us that the diagnoses on the six people were made purely in consequence of actions in which they were exercising fundamental freedoms…"[9]: 497  They recommended discussing the issue in the course of the forthcoming World Psychiatric Association (WPA) World Congress in Mexico in November 1971.[9]: 497 

The Congress in Mexico City

The Congress in Mexico City was held on November 28 — December 4, 1971. The statement of the forty-four British psychiatrists was circulated to the 7000 delegates in English, Spanish, and French.[111]: 103  There were statements from the Soviet Human Rights Committee describing the part played by Snezhnevsky, a head of the Soviet delegation, in the Medvedev case.[111]: 103 

When speakers demanded that the Congress go on record against the confinement of dissidents in psychiatric hospitals, the Soviet delegation and Snezhnevsky instantly walked out.[111]: 103  They said that they could not talk about the issue since the Congress lacked official interpretation into Russian.[111]: 103 

At this congress, Western psychiatrists tried to censure their Soviet colleagues for the first time.[55] But the charges of psychiatric abuse were new, the campaign was disorganized, and Snezhnevsky, who headed the Soviet delegation, remained unscathed.[55] He said in rebuttal that the accusations were a "cold-war maneuver carried out at the hands of experts."[55]

The WPA General Secretary Denis Leigh said that the WPA was under no obligation to accept complaints from one member society directed against another member society, and he informed Snezhnevsky of the complaints and sent him the "Bukovsky Papers."[9]: 497  Leigh proposed to constitute a committee for considering the ethical aspects of psychiatric practice, but also in this instance the issue of political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR was not mentioned.[9]: 497 

One of the key apologists of Soviet psychiatric abuse, Soviet psychiatrist Marat Vartanyan, was chosen as associate secretary of the Executive Committee.[9]: 497  A day after the Mexico Congress Vartanyan announced publicly that the nature of Soviet system was such that this could not possibly happen.[9]: 497  As Robert van Voren wrote, the Armenian Vartanyan was as slick as one could be, and had no problem lying in the twinkling of an eye.[85]: 61  He was masterful in his dealings with the WPA and continued to represent the Soviet Union at symposiums and congresses of the WPA.[85]: 61  Being in grain hospitable, flamboyant, full of humor and with a Western style, Vartanyan managed to fool one after another.[85]: 61 

In the end, no action was taken by the Congress.[111]: 103  As Psychiatric News reported, it became apparent that the WPA leaders had no desire to take an action which would have alienated the USSR delegation and would quite probably make them "walk out" and sever communications for some time to come.[111]: 103 

Bukovsky and Gluzman in prison

The failure to debate the issue opened the door for Soviet authorities to adjudge Bukovsky to 12 years of camp and exile, and to enlarge the use of psychiatry as a tool of repression.[9]: 497 

In January 1972, Bukovsky was convicted of spreading anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 70 of the RSFSR Criminal Code, mainly on the ground that he had, with anti-Soviet intention, circulated false reports that mentally healthy political dissenters were incarcerated in mental hospitals and were subjected to abuse there.[113]: 11 

In 1974, Bukovsky and the incarcerated psychiatrist Semyon Gluzman wrote A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissenters,[114][115] in which they provided potential future victims of political psychiatry with instructions on how to behave during inquest in order to avoid being diagnosed as mentally sick.[9]: 496  The Manual focuses on how "the Soviet use of psychiatry as a punitive means is based upon the deliberate interpretation of heterodoxy (in one sense of the world) as a psychiatric problem."[116] Semyon Gluzman, a first psychiatrist in the Soviet Union who openly opposed Soviet abuse of psychiatry against dissenters,[117] was one of three authors of the document An In Absentia Psychiatric Opinion on the Case of P.G. Grigorenko[118][119]: 180 [120]: 324  otherwise known as An In Absentia Forensic-psychiatric Report on P.G. Grigorenko; this document started circulating in samizdat form in 1971[8]: 73 [102]: 235 [121] and was based on the medical record of Grigorenko[120]: 324  who spoke against the human rights abuses in the Soviet Union.[122]: 95  Gluzman came to the conclusion that Grigorenko was mentally sane and had been taken to mental hospitals for political reasons.[8]: 73  In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Gluzman was forced to serve seven years in labor camps and three years in Siberian exile for refusing to diagnose Grigorenko as having the mental illness.[122]: 95 

In December 1976, in his eleventh year of psychiatric hospitals and prison camps, Bukovsky was exchanged by the Soviet government for the imprisoned Chilean Communist leader Luis Corvalán[123]: 79  at Zürich airport and, after a short stay in Holland, took up refuge in Great Britain where later moved from London to Cambridge for his studies in biology.[85]: 7  Voluntary and involuntary emigration allowed the authorities to rid themselves of many political active intellectuals including writers Valentin Turchin, Georgi Vladimov, Vladimir Voinovich, Lev Kopelev, Vladimir Maximov, Naum Korzhavin, Vasily Aksyonov and others.[124]: 194 

The appeal made by Bukovsky in 1971 caused the formation of the first groups to campaign against the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.[51]: 150  In France, a group of doctors constituted the "Committee against the Special Psychiatric Hospitals in the USSR," while in Great Britain a "Working Commission on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals" was created.[51]: 150  Among its founding members were Peter Reddaway, a Sovietologist and lecturer at the London School of Economics and Political Science, and Sidney Bloch, a South-African born psychiatrist.[51]: 150  In September 1975, there was formed the "Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse" (CAPA),[102]: 328  an organization constituted as the British section of the Initiating Committee Against Abuses of Psychiatry for Political Purposes and composed of psychiatrists, other doctors, and laymen.[116] In July 1976 in Trafalgar Square, CAPA held a rally against the abuse of psychiatry in the USSR.[116] In 1978, Royal College of Psychiatrists established the Special Committee on abuse of psychiatry.[64]: 223  20 December 1980 saw the formation in Paris of the International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry (IAPUP) whose first secretary was Gérard Bles of France.[125]: 273 

The Honolulu Congress

In 1975, the American Psychiatric Association agreed to host the WPA's sixth World Congress of Psychiatry during August 28 – September 3, 1977, in Honolulu.[102]: 335  The request to discuss the Soviet issue during the World Congress of the World Psychiatric Association in Honolulu was made by Americans and the British and was supported by other societies.[51]: 194 

On 10 September 1976, Chairman of the KGB Yuri Andropov submitted to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union his report informing of "anti-Soviet campaign with nasty fabrications regarding the alleged use psychiatry in the USSR as an instrument in the political struggle with 'dissidents'."[51]: 194  The report alleged that the campaign was a carefully planned anti-Soviet action in which a noticeable part was played by the British Royal College of Psychiatrists under the influence of pro-Zionist elements and that the KGB was undertaking measures through operational channels to counter hostile attacks.[51]: 195 

In October 1976, the Ministry of Health constituted a special working group to develop a plan of action for a counter campaign.[51]: 195  The working group had among its members leading Soviet psychiatrists Andrei Snezhnevsky, Georgi Morozov, Marat Vartanyan, and Eduard Babayan under the chairmanship of Deputy Minister of Health Dmitri Venediktov.[51]: 195  The plans they worked out consisted in, inter alia, compiling documents with counterarguments for being spread before and during the World Congress; actively lobbying the media for explaining the human nature of Soviet medicine; actively lobbying inside the World Psychiatric Association for preventing the issue from being put on the agenda; lobbying the World Health Organization for exerting pressure on the WPA not to allow this unacceptable anti-Soviet campaign; and establishing closer working relations with positively inclined colleagues in the West.[51]: 195 

In February 1977, representatives of the secret services of the USSR, the German Democratic Republic (GDR), Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Cuba met in Moscow to talk about a common approach to the issue of political abuse psychiatry and the upcoming World Congress in Honolulu.[51]: 195  This meeting was mainly chaired by Major General Ivan Pavlovich Abramov, deputy head of the Fifth Directorate of the KGB (which dealt, inter alia, with dissenters), with the support of deputy head of the First Division of the Fifth Directorate Colonel Romanov who, according to the report, would travel with the Soviet delegation to Honolulu as "political advisor".[51]: 195  The minutes of the meeting demonstrate that Western preparations for the Honolulu World Congress were under the Soviet concern in which the leading part was played by the KGB of the Soviet Union.[51]: 196 

Not long before the World Congress, a high-level conference was held in East Berlin, and the Soviet psychiatric leaders met with colleagues from Czechoslovakia, Poland, the GDR, Hungary, and Bulgaria to coordinate their positions.[51]: 196  Much to the vexation of Georgi Morozov, the Romanians did not come to this meeting, while both the Hungarians and the Poles openly criticized the Soviet stance.[51]: 196 

However, all this activity of the Soviets cold not prevent the issue from dominating the Congress from the very outset.[51]: 196  At the fist plenary session of the Congress, the introduction of the Declaration of Hawaii[126][127][128] took place.[51]: 196  This statement of ethical principles of psychiatry had been drafted by the Ethical Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee established in 1973 in response to the increasing number of protests against using psychiatry for non-medical reasons.[51]: 196  One of the principles stated in the Declaration was that a psychiatrist must not take part in compulsory psychiatric treatment in the absence of mental disease, and the Declaration also included other clauses which could be considered as heaving a bearing on the political abuse psychiatry.[51]: 196  The General Assembly accepted the Declaration of Hawaii without difficulty, and without opposition by the Delegation of the Soviets.[51]: 196  However, the Declaration was later criticized by Hanfried Helmchen, who found its ethical guideline No 1 to be misleading and stated that when health, personal autonomy and growth—without referring to mental illness—are to be formulated as the direct aim of psychiatry, the menace of vast expansion of psychiatry will increase and that the renunciation of an illness concept appeared to be an essential source for the 'total psychiatrisation of everybody and everything' which was also deplored by Blomquist in his commentary.[129]

At the plenary session, an Ethics Committee was also established under the chairmanship of Costas Stephanis from Greece; among of the members was Marat Vartanyan from the USSR.[51]: 196 

The Soviet issue passed the General Assembly less easily.[51]: 196  The Soviets did all possible to prove their point, and according to the report of the Soviet delegation, Marat Vartanyan had successfully prevented former Soviet political prisoner Leonid Plyushch from being registered as a delegate at the Congress and "anti-Soviet materials" from being spread in the main congress hall.[51]: 196  In 1977 at the World Congress in Honolulu, Snezhnevsky again defended psychiatric practices used in his country.[55]

Two motions were put to the vote, a British one condemning the systematic political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR and an American one calling on the World Psychiatric Association to constitute a Review Committee to investigate the allegations of political abuse of psychiatry.[51]: 197  The British resolution passed with 90 to 88 votes[51]: 197  and only because the Poles did not come and the Russians, having been tardy in their dues payments, were not allowed to cast all votes allocated to them.[55] This resolution was the climax of a lengthy campaign in the West to expose the Soviet practice of committing some of its political and other dissenters to mental hospitals.[130] The allegations, confirmed by some Soviet psychiatrists who have fled or emigrated to the West, induced the World Psychiatric Association to condemn the USSR for the "systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes."[131] Kremlin spokesmen ignored the action as a provocation "by a handful of antipsychiatric and antisocial elements" and began a propaganda campaign to contradict the accusations.[131]

The American resolution requesting to set up a Review Committee received a larger majority of votes, 121 votes against 66.[51]: 197  Snezhnevsky returned to Moscow wounded, with members of his delegation putting the blame for their defeat on the "Zionists."[55]

1978 saw a public statement made by Soviet psychiatrist Yuri Novikov, who was the head of a section of the Serbsky Institute for six years and first secretary of the Association of Soviet Psychiatrists until he left the Soviet Union in June 1977.[71]: 76  In his statement, he said that political abuses of psychiatry took place in the Soviet Union and that it was not the scale of this that mattered, but the fact that it existed.[71]: 76 

The Review Committee

In December 1978, the Review Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Canadian psychiatrist Jean-Yves Gosselin[51]: 197  and, in August 1979, received the first complaints submitted by the British Royal College of Psychiatrists.[51]: 199  From the very first day, the Soviets refused to recognize its existence.[51]: 197  Originally they attempted to prevent its establishment, maintaining that it would divert the WPA from its major function, namely the exchange of scientific ideas.[51]: 197  When the Review Committee was constituted, the Soviet society asserted overtly that they would not collaborate with the Review Committee, and they confirmed their stance in three letters, in which they claimed that the Review Committee was an "illegal formation," that it would continue not to acknowledge its existence and that no cooperation could be expected.[51]: 197  That stance would remain unaltered over the years to come.[51]: 197  Finally, the Review Committee was largely made powerless when the President and General Secretary of the WPA decided to bypass it and began to communicate with the Soviets directly.[51]: 197 

However, later, at the General Assembly during the World Congress in Vienna in 1983, the status and work of the Review Committee were discussed and it was resolved to allow the Committee to become statutory.[132] The General Assembly resolved further to change the Committee scope towards complaints about not only political but any abuse of psychiatry.[132] As it was emphasized, the WPA is not a human rights organization and the Review Committee should only examine complaints about specific acts of abuse carried out by specific psychiatrists against specific persons.[132] The 1999 General Assembly modified the mandate of the Review Committee as follows: "The Review Committee shall review complaints and other issues and initiate investigations on the violations of the ethical guidelines for the practice of psychiatry as stated in the Declaration of Madrid and its additional guidelines in order to make recommendations to the Executive Committee as to any possible action."[132]

The Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes

File:Podrabinek-photo.JPG
Alexandr Podrabinek (b. 1953), a Russian journalist and former Soviet human rights activist and political prisoner

In January 1977, Alexandr Podrabinek along with a 47 year-old self-educated worker Feliks Serebrov, a 30 year-old computer programmer Vyacheslav Bakhmin and Irina Kuplun established the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes.[51]: 148  The Commission was formally linked to the Moscow Helsinki Group[51]: 148  founded by Yuri Orlov along with ten others including Elena Bonner and Anatoly Shcharansky in 1976 to monitor Soviet compliance with the human rights provisions of the Helsinki Accords.[133]: 67  The commission was composed of five open members and several anonymous ones, including a few psychiatrists who, at great danger to themselves, conducted their own independent examinations of cases of alleged psychiatric abuse.[134] The leader of the commission was Alexandr Podrabinek who published a book Punitive Medicine[134] containing a "white list" of two hundred of prisoners of conscience in Soviet mental hospitals and a "black list" of over one hundred medical staff and doctors who took part in committing people to psychiatric facilities for political reasons.[26]: 15 

The psychiatric consultants to the Commission were Alexander Voloshanovich and Anatoly Koryagin.[8]: 153  The task stated by the Commission was not primarily to diagnose persons or to declare people who sought help mentally ill or mentally healthy.[25]: 26 [51]: 150  However, in some instances individuals who came for help to the Commission were examined by a psychiatrist who provided help to the Commission and made a precise diagnosis of their mental condition.[25]: 26 [51]: 150  At first it was psychiatrist Alexander Voloshanovich from the Moscow suburb of Dolgoprudny, who made these diagnoses.[51]: 150  But when he had been compelled to emigrate on 7 February 1980,[135] his work was continued by the Kharkov psychiatrist Anatoly Koryagin.[51]: 150  Koryagin's contribution was to examine former and potential victims of political abuse of psychiatry by writing psychiatric diagnoses in which he deduced that the individual was not suffering from any mental disease.[51]: 179  Those reports were employed as a means of defense: if the individual was picked up again and committed to mental hospital, the Commission had vindication that the hospitalization served non-medical purposes.[51]: 179  Also some foreign psychiatrists including the Swedish psychiatrist Harald Blomberg and British psychiatrist Gery Low-Beer helped in examining former or potential victims of psychiatric abuse.[51]: 150  The Commission used those reports in its work and publicly referred to them when it was essential.[51]: 150 

The commission gathered as much information as possible of victims of psychiatric terror in the Soviet Union and published this information in their Information Bulletins.[85]: 45  For the four years of its existence, the Commission published more than 1,500 pages of documentation including 22 Information Bulletins in which over 400 cases of the political abuse of psychiatry were documented in great detail.[51]: 148  Summaries of the Information Bulletins were published in the key samizdat publication, the Chronicle of Current Events.[51]: 148  The Information Bulletins were sent to the Soviet officials, with request to verify the data and notify the Commission if mistakes were found, and to the West, where human rights defenders used them in the course of their campaigns.[51]: 148  The Information Bulletins were also used to provide the dissident movement with information about Western protests against the political abuse.[51]: 148  Peter Reddaway said that after he had studied official documents in the Soviet archives, including minutes from meetings of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, it became evident to him that Soviet officials at high levels paid close attention to foreign responses to these cases, and if someone was discharged, all dissidents felt the pressure had played a significant part and the more foreign pressure the better.[136]

Over fifty victims examined by psychiatrists of the Moscow Working Commission between 1977 and 1981 and the files smuggled to the West by Vladimir Bukovsky in 1971 were the material which convinced most psychiatric associations that there was distinctly something wrong in the USSR.[85]: 245 

The Soviet authorities responded aggressively.[85]: 45  Members of the group were being threatened, followed, subjected to house searches and interrogations.[85]: 45  In the end, the members of the Commission were subjected to various terms and types of punishments: Alexander Podrabinek was sentenced to 5 years' internal exile, Irina Grivnina to 5 years' internal exile, Vyacheslav Bakhmin to 3 years in a labor camp, Leonard Ternovsky to 3 years' labor camp, Anatoly Koryagin to 8 years' imprisonment and labor camp and 4 years' internal exile, Alexander Voloshanovich was sent to voluntary exile.[8]: 153 

Royal College of Psychiatrists (building with yellow flag) in Belgrave Square, London

In the autumn of 1978, the British Royal College of Psychiatrists carried a resolution in which it reiterated its concern over the abuse of psychiatry for the suppression of dissent in the USSR and applauded the Soviet citizens, who had taken an open stance against such abuse, by expressing its admiration and support especially for Semyon Gluzman, Alexander Podrabinek, Alexander Voloshanovich, and Vladimir Moskalkov.[137]

Resolutions for expulsion or suspension

On 12 August 1982, in preparation for the World Congress in Vienna, the American Psychiatric Association sent out to all member societies of the World Psychiatric Association a memorandum announcing their intention to organize a forum for discussing the issue of Soviet psychiatric abuse prior to the General Assembly in Vienna.[51]: 201 

On 18 January 1983, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to the GDR, Gorald Gorinovich, delivered a message from the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany in which it said that the abnormal situation which had developed within the World Psychiatric Association put in effect its whole activity in question and that for this reason, All-Union Society took the decision to withdraw from the WPA.[51]: 203 

On 22 January 1983, the British Medical Journal published a letter by Allan Wynn, the chairman of the Working Group on the Internment of Dissenters in Mental Hospitals, reporting that in consequence of the continued abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union the American, British, French, Danish, Norwegian, Swiss, and Australasian member societies of the World Psychiatric Association with the support indicated by many of its other members proposed resolutions for the expulsion or suspension of membership of the Soviet Society of Neurologists and Psychiatrists, which would be considered at the World Congress of the World Psychiatric Association in Vienna in July 1983.[138]

On 31 January 1983, the All-Union Society officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association[51]: 203  under threat of expulsion.[109] In their letter of resignation, the Soviets complained about a "slanderous campaign, blatantly political in nature… directed against Soviet psychiatry in the spirit of the 'cold war' against the Soviet Union" and, being especially angry about the memorandum of the American Psychiatric Association of August 1982, charged the WPA leadership with complicity by not having spoken out against this mailing.[51]: 204 

According reports on hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe on 20 September 1983, the national associations justly held the opinion that 10 years of mild public protests, quiet diplomacy, and private conversations with Soviet official psychiatrists had produced no significant change in the level of Soviet abuses, and that this approach had, thereby, failed.[71]: 44  In January 1983, the number of member associations of the World Psychiatry Association, voting for the suspension or expulsion of the Soviet Union, rose to nine.[71]: 44  Inasmuch as these associations would have half the votes in the WPA governing body, the Soviets was now, in January, almost sure to be voted out in July.[71]: 45 

According the statement made by the chairman of the APA Committee on International Abuse of Psychiatry and Psychiatrists Harold Vysotsky at the hearing, the Committee on behalf of certain persons had written hundreds of letters to the USSR, including those to authorities of the Soviet Government, to patients themselves, the families of patients, the psychiatrists who were treating these patients, but only indirectly heard from the families of patients and had never received a response from the authorities.[71]: 16  In the statement, he mentioned that 20 cases were referred over to the World Psychiatric Association for further investigation by their committee to review alleged abuses of psychiatry for political purposes and a number of these cases were sent to the All Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR for clarification and response, but when months and months went by and the World Psychiatric Association had received no response from Soviet colleagues, the American Psychiatric Association and a number of other psychiatric associations across the world carried a resolution which stated:[125]: 185 [71]: 16 [139]: 381 

If the All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists of the USSR does not adequately respond to all enquiries from the World Psychiatric Association regarding the issue of psychiatric abuse in that country by April 1, 1983, that the All-Union Society should be suspended from membership in the World Psychiatric Association until such time that these abuses cease to exist.

The Vienna Congress

The Seventh World Congress of the WPA was scheduled to meet on July 10 – 16, 1983, at Vienna where heated discussion and a close vote on the resolutions were anticipated.[140]: 62 

The General Assembly of the World Psychiatric Association in Vienna was likely one of the most tense and disorganized meetings in its existence.[51]: 211  Some delegates, especially those from Israel, Mexico, Egypt, Cuba, and the GDR angrily appealed to the WPA Executive Committee not to accept the resignation of the Soviets, whereas others voiced the view that it was a fact of life one had to live with, an opinion supported by the WPA President Pierre Pichot.[51]: 211  The debate was preceded by a discussion of various resolutions which had been submitted, but the state of affairs was so perplexing that some delegates did not even know which resolution they were asked to vote upon.[51]: 211  Finally a resolution drafted by the British delegate Kenneth Rawnsley,[51]: 211  who served as the fourth president of the Royal College of Psychiatrists from 1981 to 1984,[141] was carried by 174 votes to 18, with 27 abstentions.[51]: 211 [71]: 17 [142]: 218  The resolution was strikingly conciliatory in tone:[51]: 211 [142]: 218 

The World Psychiatric Association would welcome the return of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists of the USSR to membership of the Association, but would expect sincere co-operation and concrete evidence beforehand of amelioration of the political abuse psychiatry in the Soviet Union.

Releases

The freedoms of the Gorbachev period diminished the human rights movement because many of their decades-long concerns such as suppression of free expression, imprisonment of dissidents, and psychiatric abuse were not longer the main problems facing Soviet society.[143]: 9 

1986 saw the discharge of nineteen political prisoners from mental hospitals.[51]: 318 [144]: 3  In 1987, sixty-four political prisoners were discharged from mental hospitals.[51]: 318 [144]: 3  In early 1988, Chief Psychiatrist Aleksandr Churkin stated in an interview with Corriere della Sera issued on 5 April 1988 that 5,5 million Soviet citizens were on the psychiatric register and that within two years 30 percent would be removed from this list.[51]: 322  However, a year later the journal Ogoniok published a figure of 10,2 million provided by the state statistics committee.[51]: 322 [145] In 1990, Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S S Korsakova published almost the same figure of 10 million people registered at psychoneurological dispensaries and 335,200 hospital beds used in the Soviet Union by 1987.[57][146]

At a press conference held in Moscow on 27 October 1989, Gennady Milyokhin claimed that of the three hundred patients named by international human rights organizations, "practically all had left hospital."[147]

Visit of the US delegation

In 1989, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by perestroika and glasnost.[2] Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the United States government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.[2]

They traveled to the Soviet Union on 25 February 1989.[51]: 373  The group consisted of about 25 people among whom were Bill Farrand of the State Department; Loren Roth as head of the psychiatric team; psychiatrists of the National Institute of Mental Health, including Scientific Director of the US Delegation Darrel A. Regier, Harold Visotsky from Chicago as head of the hospital visit team, and four émigré Soviet psychiatrists living in the United States.[51]: 373  There also were State Department interpreters, two attorneys, Ellen Mercer of the American Psychiatric Association and Peter Reddaway.[51]: 373 

The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.[8]: 69  Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.[8]: 69  About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.[8]: 69  The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.[8]: 69  One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having schizophrenia although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.[8]: 70  Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.[8]: 70  According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.[8]: 70 

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.[85]: 125  The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.[85]: 125  The report was published in Schizophrenia Bulletin, Supplement to Vol. 15, No. 4, 1989.[8]: 69 [51]: 385 [148] As far as Robert van Voren could establish, the report was never published in the USSR.[51]: 385  Only after twenty years, in 2009, the report was traslated into Russian, and its Russian version was published not in Russia but in Netherlands, on the website of the Global Initiative on Psychiatry.[149]

The Athens Congress

In the months prior to the Eight World Psychiatric Assembly in Athens, there was substantial dispute about the possible readmittance of the All-Union Society to the WPA.[8]: 71  The Eighth World Congress of the World Psychiatric Association was held between 12 and 19 October 1989 in Athens.[147] The Congress was reminiscent of the previous World Congress in 1983 in Vienna, and the one before that in 1977 in Honolulu.[147] The issue of the Soviet political abuse of psychiatry raised its ugly head, and dominated the WPA proceedings.[147]

On 16 October, the Soviet delegation convened a press conference.[147] The panel was uniformly evasive and defensive.[147] After a detailed and lengthy account by Karpov of Soviet psychiatric reforms in which he emphasized the specialities of the new mental health legislation and in particular the legal safeguards for patients, other panellists worked out on what they considered as positive aspects of the new developments.[147] However then, abruptly, this sense of optimism was disrupted by the bluntest of questions posed by Anatoly Koryagin: Had political psychiatric abuse occurred or not?[147] Alexander Tiganov, who played a prominent part in the press conference, answered hesitatingly that "such cases" could have taken place during the period of stagnation "but there was a need to distinguish between psychiatric, legal and political aspects."[147] Koryagin persevered with his challenge and countered that these answers failed to clarify whether an acknowledgment was being made that Soviet psychiatry had been misused for political reasons.[147]

Koryagin stated that readmission would offer carte blanche to the KGB to continue its repressive practices, that there would be further abuse of psychiatry, and that the plight of prisoners would be hopeless.[150] He proposed four conditions for readmission:[150]

  1. Soviet psychiatrists must acknowledge previous political abuses and reject them;
  2. all detainees must be released;
  3. participation in monitoring of future practice must be obligatory;
  4. and representatives of the World Psychiatric Association must be permitted to function freely on Soviet territory.

Several national associations, including the Royal College of Psychiatrists, the Australasian College, the Swiss Psychiatric Association, and the West German Psychiatric Association insisted that the Soviet Society should not be admitted until specific conditions had been satisfied; these included the release of all dissidents unjustifiably detained in psychiatric hospitals, and the dissociation by the authorities from the past abuse and their obligation to prevent its repetition.[147]

The Soviet delegation to the 1989 World Congress of the WPA in Athens eventually agreed to admit that the systematic abuse of psychiatry for political purposes had indeed taken place in their country.[14]: 32 [151] At the Congress, the Soviet Society's International Secretary Pyotr Morozov on behalf of his delegation made a statement containing the following five points, which are quoted in full:[147]

# The All-Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists publicly acknowledges that previous political conditions created an environment in which psychiatric abuse occurred for non-medical, including political, reasons.

  1. Victims of abuse shall have their cases reviewed within the USSR and also in cooperation with the WPA, and the registry shall not be used against psychiatric patients.
  2. The All-Union Society unconditionally accepts the WPA review instrument.
  3. The All-Union Society supports the changes in the Soviet law with full implementation relevant to the practice of psychiatry and the treatment and protection of the rights of the mentally ill.
  4. The All-Union Society encourages an enlightened leadership in the psychiatric professional community.

Felice Lieh Mak, just chosen as President-Elect, proposed a resolution which included the statement read by Morozov, and then adding that within one year the Review Committee should visit the Soviet Union and that if evidence of continued political abuse of psychiatry were to be found, a special meeting of the General Assembly should be convoked to give consideration to suspension of membership of the Soviets.[51]: 435  In the end, 291 votes were cast for the resolution, 45 against, with 19 abstentions.[51]: 436  The Soviets were readmitted to the WPA under conditions[51]: 436  and on the ground of having made a public confession of the existence of previous psychiatric abuse and having given a commitment to review any present or subsequent cases and to sustain and introduce reforms to the psychiatric system and new mental health legislation.[8]: 71 

Deeply shocked, Anatoly Koryagin, who had considered the statement by the Soviets as completely hypocritical and insincere and had not thought that the Soviets would be permitted to return, officially renounced his Honorary Membership of the WPA by submitting on 8 November 1989 to the WPA General Secretary a short letter:[51]: 437 

On 17th October 1989 the All Union Society of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the USSR, which counts among its members criminal psychiatrists, guilty of psychiatric abuses for political purposes, was readmitted to the World Psychiatric Association. As I do not wish to be a member of an organization together with that kind of persons, I renounce the honorary membership of the World Psychiatric Association, which I held since 1983.

The Soviet delegates returned to Moscow jubilantly.[51]: 437  In an interview with a Soviet television crew, Marat Vartanyan replied to the question whether any conditions had been set to a Soviet return:[51]: 437 [152]

No, that is wrong information, which you received from somewhere. There were no conditions. We set the conditions. That is, we proposed… eh… the Executive Committee of the WPA to come to us on an official visit to the Soviet Union within a year.

The next day, the government newspaper Izvestiya carried a report on 19 October which did not mention any of the conditions while asserting that the All Union Society had been granted full membership.[51]: 437  The dissemination of disinformation on the part of the Soviets had distinctly not yet come to an end.[51]: 437  Only on 27 October 1989, Meditsinskaya Gazeta reported the conditions set by the WPA General Assembly.[51]: 437 

Establishing the IPA

File:Savenko Yuriy Sergeevich.jpg
Yuri Savenko, the President of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia and editor-in-chief of Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal

In 1989, the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia (IPA) was created as an association publicly opposing itself to official Soviet psychiatry and its offspring, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists, which was completely under the control of the Soviet government and implemented its political principles.[153] From the very beginning the IPA and its President Yuri Savenko had to take on human rights functions in addition to educational ones: first, it was necessary to uncover the ideological basis on which the Soviet psychiatry carried out its punitive activities; second, it was necessary to develop legal norms which would forever prevent such abuses; third, it was necessary to show that it is not society that needs to be protected from the mentally ill, but the ill need to be protected from society as a whole, not only from the authorities; fourth, it was necessary to overcome rigidity and inhumane nature of modern domestic psychiatry detached from its old roots and, at the same time, artificially isolated from Western humanistic trends.[153]

Visit of the WPA delegation

The WPA team spent three weeks in the Soviet Union,[8]: 71  from 9 to 29 June 1991,[154] and saw ten cases, all of which had been diagnosed by Soviet psychiatrists as having schizophrenia.[8]: 72  When reviewed case notes and the results of their own interviews, the WPA team confirmed the diagnosis of schizophrenia only in one case and reported that there was still a wide gap between Soviet criteria for the diagnosis of schizophrenia and those used internationally in other countries.[8]: 72 [154]: 11  Of the six individuals committed to a Special Psychiatric Hospital, four of the cases were distinctly of a political nature and of these four, three had never been mentally sick.[51]: 454 [154]: 10 

In a letter sent in 1991 to Aleksandr Tiganov, the new chairman of the All Union Society (or, the now called themselves, the Federation of Societies of Psychiatrists and Narcologists of the Commonwealth of Independent States), the WPA General Secretary Juan José Lopez Ibor wrote that the All Union Society made in the General Assembly a Statement that included five items, several of which was not yet fulfilled, and that thereby, the Executive Committee unanimously agreed that it would not recommend continuing membership of the society in June 1993.[51]: 455  Less than two months after the visit of the team to the Soviet Union, a coup against Mikhail Gorbachev was carried out.[51]: 455  The coup failed and was followed by the dissolution of the USSR.[51]: 455  As a consequence, the All Union Society remained without a country to represent.[51]: 455  The USSR Federation of Psychiatrists and Narcologists officially resigned from the World Psychiatric Association in October 1992.[51]: 455 

Russian Mental Health Law

In Russia, the enactment of its Mental Health Law took place under dramatic circumstances despite the need for the Law because of 80 year delay, after which the Law passed by Russia beside all developed countries, and despite dimensions of political abuse of psychiatry which were unprecedented in history and were being persistently denied for two decades from 1968 to 1988.[155] When Soviet rule was coming to an end, the decision to develop the Mental Health Law was taken from above and under the threat of economic sanctions from the United States.[155] At a meeting held by the Health Committee of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in the autumn of 1991, the Law was approved, particularly in the speeches by the four members of the WPA commission, but this event was followed by the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[155] In 1992, a new commission was created under the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation and used a new concept of developing the Law; a quarter of the commission members were the representatives of the IPA.[155] The Law has been put in force since 1 January 1993.[155] Adoption of the Law On Psychiatric Care and Guarantees of Citizens’ Rights during Its Provision is regarded as an epoch-making event in the history of domestic psychiatry, as establishing the legal basis for psychiatric care, and, first of all, mediating all involuntary measures through judicial procedure.[155] That is a main post-Soviet achievement of Russian psychiatry and the foundation for a basically new attitude to the mentally ill as persons reserving all their civil and political rights and freedoms.[155] In 1993, when the IPA printed the Law in 50 thousand copies for general reader, quite a number of heads of the Moscow psychoneurologic dispensaries refused to circulate the Law.[155] Over time, these difficulties were overcome.[155] It became obligatory to know the Law to pass the certification exam.[155]

However, article 38, which was once included in the Law as a guarantee of keeping the whole Law for patients of psychiatric hospitals, is still not working, and, as a result, the service independent of health authorities to defend rights of patients in psychiatric hospitals is still not created.[156]

Analysis

In 1990, Psychiatric Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists published the article Compulsion in psychiatry: blessing or curse? by the Russian psychiatrist Anatoly Koryagin.[157] It contains analysis of the abuse of psychiatry and eight arguments by which the existence of a system of political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR cаn easily be demonstrated.[157] As Koryagin wrote, in a dictatorial State with a totalitarian regime, such as the USSR, the laws have at all times served not the purpose of self-regulation of the life of society but have been one of the major levers by which to manipulate the behavior of subjects.[157] Every Soviet citizen has constantly been straight considered state property and been regarded not as the aim, but as a means to achieve the rulers' objectives.[157] From the perspective of state pragmatism, a mentally sick person was regarded as a burden to society, using up the state's material means without recompense and not producing anything, and even potentially capable of inflicting harm.[157] Therefore, the Soviet State never considered it reasonable to pass special legislative acts protecting the material and legal part of the patients' life.[157] It was only instructions of the legal and medical departments that stipulated certain rules of handling the mentally sick and imposing different sanctions on them.[157] A person with a mental disorder was automatically divested of all rights and depended entirely on the psychiatrists' will.[157] Practically anybody could undergo psychiatric examination on the most senseless grounds and the issued diagnosis turned him into a person without rights.[157] It was this lack of legal rights and guarantees that advantaged a system of repressive psychiatry in the country.[157]

According to O.V. Lapshin, Russia until 1993 did not have any specific legislation in the field of mental health except uncoordinated instructions and articles of laws in criminal and administrative law, orders of the USSR Ministry of Health.[158] In the Soviet Union, any psychiatric patient could be hospitalized by request of his headman, relatives or instructions of a district psychiatrist.[158] In this case, patient’s consent or dissent mattered nothing.[158] The duration of treatment in a psychiatric hospital also depended entirely on the psychiatrist.[158] All that made the abuse of psychiatry possible to suppress those, who disagreed with the political regime, and that created the vicious practice of ignoring the rights of the mentally ill.[158]

According to Yuri Savenko, the president of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia (the IPA), punitive psychiatry arises on the basis of the interference of three main factors:[17]

  1. ideologizing of science, its breakaway from the achievements of world psychiatry;
  2. lack of legal basis;
  3. the total nationalization of mental health service.

Their interaction system is principally sociological: the presence of the Penal Code article on slandering the state system inevitably results in sending a certain percentage of citizens to forensic psychiatric examination.[17] Thus, it is not psychiatry itself that is punitive, but the totalitarian state uses psychiatry for punitive purposes with ease.[17]

According to Larry Gostin, the root cause of the problem was the State itself.[159] The definition of danger was radically extended by the Soviet criminal system to cover 'political' as well as customary physical types of 'danger'.[159]

According to Semyon Gluzman, abuse of psychiatry to suppress dissent is based on condition of psychiatry in a totalitarian state.[11] Psychiatric paradigm of a totalitarian state is culpable for its expansion into spheres which are not initially those of psychiatric competence.[11]

Richard Bonnie, a professor of law and medicine at the University of Virginia School of Law, mentioned the deformed nature of the Soviet psychiatric profession as one of the explanations for why it was so easily bent toward the repressive objectives of the state, and pointed out the importance of a civil society and, in particular, independent professional organizations separate and apart from the state as one of the most substantial lessons from the period.[160]

According to Moscow psychiatrist Alexander Danilin, the so-called "nosological" approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by A.V. Snezhnevsky boiles down to the ability to make an only diagnosis, schizophrenia; psychiatry is not science but such a system of opinions and people by the thousands are falling victims to these opinions—millions of lives were crippled by virtue of the concept "sluggish schizophrenia" introduced some time once by Andrei Vladimirovich Snezhnevsky, academician, whom Danilin called a political offender.[161]

St Petersburg academic psychiatrist Yuri Nuller notes that the concept of Snezhnevsky's school allows, for example, to consider schizoid psychopathy or schizoidism as the early, sluggishly progressing stages of an inevitable progredient process rather than the personality characteristics of an individual, which may not develop along the path of schizophrenic process at all.[162][163] That results in the extreme expansion of diagnosing sluggish schizophrenia and the harm it has done.[162][163] Nuller adds that within the scope of the sluggish schizophrenia concept, any deviation from the norm evaluated by a doctor can be regarded as schizophrenia, with all the ensuing consequences for an examinee.[162][163] That creates ample opportunity for voluntary and involuntary abuses of psychiatry.[162][163] However, neither A.V. Snezhnevsky nor his followers, according to Nuller, found civil and scientific courage to review their concept that clearly reached a deadlock.[162][163]

In 1977, British psychiatrist David Cooper asked Michel Foucault the same question which Claude Bourdet had formerly asked Viktor Fainberg during a press conference given by Fainberg and Plyushch: when the USSR has the whole penitentiary and police apparatus, which could take charge of anybody, and which is perfect in itself, why do they use psychiatry?[164]: 182  Foucault answered it was not a question of a distortion of the use of psychiatry but that was its fundamental project.[164]: 182 

American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz argued that the spectacle of the Western psychiatrists loudly condemning Soviet colleagues for their abuse of professional standards was largely an exercise in hypocrisy.[165]: 220  According to Szasz, the problem, from which psychiatric abuse stems, is psychiatric power that is just as prevalent in democratic societies as it was in the USSR.[165]: 220  He stated that psychiatric abuse, such as people usually associated with practices in the former USSR, was connected not with the misuse of psychiatric diagnoses, but with the political power built-in to the social role of the psychiatrist in democratic and totalitarian societies alike.[165]: 220 [166] In an article published in 1994 by Szasz on the Journal of medical ethics (open for debate) he stated "(...) The classification by slave owners and slave traders of certain individuals as Negroes was scientific, in the sense that whites were rarely classified as blacks. But that did not prevent the 'abuse' of such racial classification, because (what we call) its abuse was, in fact, its use. (...)"[166]

Residual problems

Robert van Voren noted that after the fall of the Berlin Wall, it became apparent that the political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR was only the tip of the iceberg, the sign that much more was basically wrong.[51]: 476  This much more realistic image of Soviet psychiatry showed up only after the Soviet regime began to loosen its grip on society and later lost control over the developments and in the end entirely disintegrated.[51]: 476  It demonstrated that the actual situation was much sorer and that many individuals had been affected.[51]: 476  Millions of individuals were treated and stigmatized by an outdated biologically oriented and hospital-based mental health service.[51]: 476  Living conditions in clinics were bad, sometimes even terrible, and violations of human rights were rampant.[51]: 476 

According to Robert van Voren, although for several years, especially after the implosion of the USSR and during the first years of Boris Yeltsin's rule, the positions of the Soviet psychiatric leaders were in jeopardy, now one can firmly conclude that they succeeded in riding out the storm and retaining their powerful positions.[51]: 477  In addition, they also succeeded in avoiding an inflow of modern concepts of delivering mental health care and a fundamental change in the structure of psychiatric services in Russia.[51]: 477  On the whole, in Russia, the impact of mental health reformers has been the least.[51]: 477  Even the reform efforts made in such places as St. Petersburg, Tomsk, and Kaliningrad have faltered or were encapsulated as centrist policies under Vladimir Putin brought them back under control.[51]: 477 

At his press conference in 2008, Semyon Gluzman said that the surplus in Ukraine of hospitals for inpatient treatment of the mentally ill was a relic of the totalitarian communist regime and that Ukraine did not have epidemic of schizophrenia but somehow Ukraine had about 90 large psychiatric hospitals including the Pavlov Hospital where beds only in its children's unit were more than in the whole of Great Britain.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).

In 1994, there was organized a conference concerned with the theme of political abuse of psychiatry and attended by representatives from different former Soviet Republics — from Russia, Belarus, the Baltics, the Caucasus, and some of the Central Asian Republics.[85]: 188  Dainius Puras made a report on the situation within the Lithuanian Psychiatric Association, where discussion had been held but no resolution had been passed.[85]: 188  Yuri Nuller talked over how in Russia the wind direction was gradually changing and the systematic political abuse of psychiatry was again being denied and degraded as an issue of "hyperdiagnosis" or "scientific disagreement."[85]: 188  It was particularly noteworthy that Tatyana Dmitrieva, the Director of the Serbsky Institute, was an active adherent of this view.[85]: 188  This was not so queer, because she was a close friend of the key architects of "political psychiatry."[85]: 188 

In the early 1990s, Tatyana Dmitrieva, the Director of the Serbsky Center, brought the required words of repentance for political abuse of psychiatry[167] which had had unprecedented dimensions in the Soviet Union for discrediting, intimidation and suppression of the human rights movement carried out primarily in this institution.[168] Her words were widely broadcasted abroad but were limitedly published in the St. Petersburg newspaper Chas Pik within the country.[167][168] However, in her 2001 book Aliyans Prava i Milosediya (The Alliance of Law and Mercy), Dmitrieva wrote that there were no abuses in psychiatry and if there were those, they were no more than in the vaunted Western countries.[168] Moreover, the mentioned book by Dmitrieva administers to the old and new national intellectuals the rebuke that professor Vladimir Serbsky and others were wrong not to cooperate with the police department because otherwise there would have been neither revolution nor bloodshed and that the current intellectuals are wrong to oppose the authorities.[168]

While speaking of the Serbsky Center, Yuri Savenko alleges that “practically nothing has changed. They have no shame at the institute about their role with the Communists. They are the same people, and they do not want to apologize for all their actions in the past.”[169] Attorney Karen Nersisyan agrees: “Serbsky is not an organ of medicine. It’s an organ of power.”[169]

In 2004, Savenko stated that the passed law on state expert activity and introduction of profession of forensic expert psychiatrist actually destroyed adversary-based examinations and that the Serbsky Center turned into a complete monopolist of forensic examination, which it had never been under Soviet rule.[75] Formerly, a court could include any psychiatrist in a commission of experts, but now the court only chooses an expert institution.[75] An expert has the right to participate only in commissions, in which he is included by the head of his expert institution, and can receive the certificate of qualification as an expert only after having worked in a state expert institution for three years.[75]

According to Savenko, the Serbsky Center has long labored to legalize its monopolistic position of the Main expert institution of the country.[170] It turned out to be a considerable drop in the level of its expert reports.[170] Such a drop was inevitable and foreseeable in the context of the Serbsky Center efforts to eliminate adversary character of the expert reports of the parties and then to maximally degrade the role of a professional as a reviewer and critic of a presented expert report.[170]

On 28 May 2009, Yuri Savenko wrote to the President of the Russian Federation Dmitry Medvedev an open letter, in which Savenko asked Medvedev to submit to the State Duma a draft law prepared by the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia to address a sharp drop in the level of forensic psychiatric examinations, which Savenko attributed to a lack of competition within the sector and its increasing nationalization.[171]

On 15 June 2009, the working group chaired by the Director of the Serbsky Center Tatyana Dmitrieva sent the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation a joint application whose purport was to declare appealing against the forensic expert reports of state expert institutions illegal and prohibit courts from receiving lawsuits filed to appeal against the reports.[170] The reason put forward for the proposal was that appeals against expert reports are allegedly filed “without regard for the scope of case” and that one must appeal against an expert report “only together with a sentence.”[170] In other words, according to Yuri Savenko, all professional errors and omissions are presented as untouchable by virtue of the fact that they were infiltrated into the sentence.[170] That is cynicism of administrative resources, cynicism of power, he says.[170]

The draft of the application to the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation was considered in the paper “Current legal issues relevant to forensic-psychiatric expert evaluation” by Elena Shchukina and Sergei Shishkov[172] focusing on the inadmissibility of appealing against an expert report without regard for the scope of evaluated case.[170] While talking about appealing against “reports”, the authors of the paper, according to lawyer Dmitry Bartenev, mistakenly identify reports with actions of experts (or an expert institution) and justify the impossibility of “parallel” examination and evaluation of actions of experts without regard for the scope of evaluated case.[170] Such a point of view taken by the authors appears clearly erroneous because abuse by experts of rights and legitimate interests of citizens including trial participants, of course, may be a subject for a separate appeal.[170]

In 2010, when the outpatient forensic-psychiatric examination of Yulia Privedyonnaya, a member of a youth organization, was carried out in the Sebsky Center, its experts asked her the question “What do you think of Putin?” that Savenko called an inappropriate, unseemly, indelicate, and police one.[173]

Use of psychiatry against religious minorities in post-Soviet times

There have been examples of the serious misuse of psychiatry by local authorities reminiscent of the Soviet abuses.[174]: 369  A number of human rights organizations including the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia criticized the use of psychiatry in "deprogramming" members of "totalitarian sects."[174]: 369 [175]: 182  In such cases, authorities apply spiritual and pseudo-psychological techniques to "treat" individuals who are members of new religious groups.[174]: 369 [175]: 182  Six Scientologists were arbitrarily detained for psychiatric examination.[174]: 369  In January 2000 in St. Petersburg, chief psychiatrist Larisa Rubina charged leader of Sentuar (the local offshoot of the Church of Scientology) Vladimir Tretyak with inflicting psychological damage on his coreligionists.[174]: 369  On June 17, six members of Sentuar — Lyudmila Urzhumtseva, Svetlana Pastuchenkova, Svetlana Kruglova, Irina Shamarina, Igor Zakrayev, and Mikhail Dvorkin — were forcibly hospitalized and subjected to 3 weeks of criminal investigation at the behest of Boris Larionov, procurator of the Vyborsky district of St. Petersburg.[174]: 369 

In 2005, Igor Kanterov, a professor of the Moscow State University, wrote that psychiatrists and psychologists were actually being involved in a very unattractive occupation, stigmatizing “alien” religions and their followers, who were about 1 million first-class citizens of the Russian Federation, and putting them “on the basis of a list of them” in the category of “psychic terrorists.”[176]

In 2006, Yuri Savenko stated that a first large relapse of the use of psychiatry for political purposes in post-Soviet Russia during recent decade was struggle against "totalitarian sects."[177] According to Yuri Savenko, the reason for the use of psychiatry against religious minorities, which began from 1995, was Y.I. Polishchuk's report containing conclusion about "gross harm on mental health" inflicted by different religious organizations.[74] This report was distributed to all public prosecutors' offices of the country and the presidents of the educational institutions despite the fact that its scientific inadequacy was emphasized by not only the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia (the IPA), but also the Russian Society of Psychiatrists since all imputed cases of illness, suicide, family breakdown, etc. proved to be much more frequent in the general population than in the persecuted religious organizations.[74] As the result of a series of court trials, it is only the vocabulary of the accusations that changed and became less clumsy; “destructive cults” started to be used instead of “totalitarian sects”; “unlawful use of hypnosis”, then “inconspicuous use of suggestion”, and, finally, “action at a subconscious level” through lectures and printed production with even anti-drug abuse content started to be used instead of “gross harm on mental health”.[177]

In 1999, the IPA expressed its concern about the facts of the use of psychiatry against religious minorities in the IPA Open Letter to the General Assembly of XI Congress of the WPA.[178] Stressing all the responsibility taken by the authors of the letter for the action involved in their statement, they noted in it that they considered it necessary to draw the WPA General Assembly's attention to the recurrent use of psychiatry for non-medical purposes, which was recommenced in Russia from 1994–1995, was subsequently going on a large-scale without slackening and was aimed at suppressing not political dissenters but already religious dissenters.[178] This letter was concluded with the proposal, which was addressed to the WPA, to adopt the text of statement containing words of the WPA's concern about initiating numerous lawsuits against various religious organizations in Russia for allegedly "inflicting by them gross harm on mental health and for unhealthy changes of personality" and to express in the statement the WPA's solidarity with the position of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia and the Russian Society of Psychiatrists as to inadmissibility of involving psychiatrists in issues straining their professional competence.[178]

In 2003, a "wrongful confinement" lawsuit, in which Yuri Savenko took part, was filed in the European Court of Human Rights.[26]: 294  When writing about this case, Savenko charged the Serbsky Institute with "having pernicious effect on Russian medicine" and warned that the psychiatric leadership "is now completely under the shadow of the state."[26]: 294 

Savenko's organization cooperated with a number of other NGOs to compose a highly critical report about rising rates of mental disease and the deteriorating system of mental health care.[26]: 294  In the report, authors blamed "chronic underfunding of psychiatric care, corruption, and poverty" and pointed an accusing finger at the psychiatric leadership.[26]: 294 

In modern Russia, the role of psychiatry in the criminal field is the same as in other countries: to evaluate whether defendants in criminal cases are legally sane to stand trial. For example, when an accused war criminal Yuri Budanov was tested at the Moscow Serbsky Institute in 2002, the panel conducting the inquiry was led by Tamara Pechernikova, who had declared poet Natalya Gorbanevskaya insane several decades earlier. Budanov was found not guilty by reason of temporary insanity, but later he was found legally sane to stand the trial by another panel that included Georgi Morozov, the former Serbsky director who had declared many dissidents insane several decades earlier.[169]

There have been reports in the 2000s about alleged imprisonment of people "inconvenient" for Russian authorities in psychiatric institutions. The artivist Larisa Arap was forcibly confined at a psychiatric clinic in Apatity.[31][32][33][34][35] Journalist Marina Kalashnikova was also detained for 35 days and claims it was done in an attempt to dissuade her from criticising the authorities.[38] The charge that psychiatry is again being abused is not universally accepted within the profession in Russia. Vladimir Rotstein, who is the president of Public Initiative on Psychiatry, an advocacy group, stated that the problem of psychiatric persecution or forced treatment existed more than 20 years ago, but it was solved and since then he has not heard of any case of forced psychiatric treatment or examination.[39] However, the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia states that the number of activists being wrongfully committed to psychiatric institutions totals dozens of cases in recent years.[39][179] In 2006, the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons issued a warning that in the Russian Federation 'psychiatry is used as a tool against dissent.'[180] In March 2006, a former nuclear scientist and vocal public defender Marina Trutko was subjected to daily injections for six weeks at Psychiatric Hospital No. 14 in Dubna, Russia, to treat her for a “paranoid personality disorder.” In 2005, Nikolai Skachkov, who protested police brutality and official corruption in the Omsk region of Siberia, spent 6 months in a closed psychiatric facility, with a diagnosis of paranoia.[181][182]

As mentioned in 2010, reports on particular cases of psychiatric abuse continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.[3] It is the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia that appears to make very active efforts to communicate their views on the previous and present abuses of psychiatry in Russia to psychiatry in the West.[49]: 541 

On 23 December 2010, Alexey Manannikov, one of organizers of oppositional rallies in Novosibirsk, was sent for psychiatric examination to mental hospital because of insulting the judge of the Central Regional Court of Novosibirsk Mariya Shishkina by writing in his blog.[36][37]

The widely known sources including published and written memoirs of victims of psychiatric arbitrariness convey moral and physical sufferings experienced by victims of psychiatric arbitrariness in special psychiatric hospitals of the USSR.[183]

In 1965, Valery Tarsis published in the West his book Ward 7: An Autobiographical Novel[79] based upon his own experiences in 1963–1964 when he was detained in the Moscow Kashchenko psychiatric hospital for political reasons.[51]: 140  The book was a first literary work to deal with the Soviet authorities' abuse of psychiatry.[80]: 208 

In 1968, the Russian poet Joseph Brodsky wrote Gorbunov and Gorchakov, a forty-page long poem in thirteen cantos consisting of lengthy conversations between two patients in a Soviet psychiatric prison as well as between each of them separately and the interrogating psychiatrists.[184]: 212  The topics vary from the taste of the cabbage served for supper to the meaning of life and Russia's destiny.[184]: 212  The poem was translated into English by Harry Thomas.[184]: 212  The experience underlying Gorbunov and Gorchakov was formed by two stints of Brodsky at psychiatric establishments.[26]: 90 

In 1970, the book Red Square at Noon by Natalya Gorbanevskaya was published in Russian[185] and English.[186] Some parts of the book describe special psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric examinations of dissidents.

In 1971, Zhores Medvedev and Roy Medvedev published their joint book A Question of Madness: Repression by Psychiatry in the Soviet Union describing the hospitalization of Zhores Medvedev for political purposes and the Soviet practice of diagnosing political oppositionists as the mentally ill.[98]

In 1976, Viktor Nekipelov published in samizdat his book Institute of Fools: Notes on the Serbsky Institute[102]: 147  documenting his personal experience at Psychiatric Hospital of the Serbsky Institute.[103]: 86  In 1980, the book was translated and published in English.[104][105]: 312  Only in 2005, the book was published in Russia.[18][187]

In 1977, British playwright Tom Stoppard wrote the play Every Good Boy Deserves Favour that criticized the Soviet practice of treating political dissidence as a form of mental illness.[188][189][190][191] The play is dedicated to Viktor Fainberg and Vladimir Bukovsky, two Soviet dissidents expelled to the West.[192]: 359 

In 1978, the book To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter by Vladimir Bukovsky, describing dissident movement, their struggle or freedom, practices of dealing with dissenters, and dozen years spent by Bukovsky in Soviet labor camps, prisons and psychiatric hospitals, was published[193] and later translated into English.[194]

In 1979, Leonid Plyushch published his book History's Carnival: A Dissident's Autobiography in which he described how he and other dissidents were committed to psychiatric hospitals.[195] At the same year, the book was translated into English.[196]

In 1981, Pyotr Grigorenko published his memoirs V Podpolye Mozhno Vstretit Tolko Krys (In Underground One Can Meet Only Rats) that included story of his psychiatric examinations and hospitalizations.[72] In 1982, the book was translated into English under the title Memoirs.[73]

In 1983, Yevgeniy Nikolaev’s book Predavshie Gippokrata (The betrayal of Hippocrates), when translated from Russian into German under the title Gehirnwäsche in Moskau, was first published in München and told about psychiatric detention of its author for political reasons.[197] In 1984, the book under its original title was first published in Russian that the book had originally been written in.[198]

In the 1983 novel Firefox Down by Craig Thomas, captured American pilot Mitchell Gant is imprisoned in a KGB psychiatric clinic "associated with the Serbsky Institute", where he is drugged and interrogated to force him to reveal the location of the Firefox aircraft, which he has stolen and flown out of Russia.[199]

In 1987, Robert van Voren published his book Koryagin: A man Struggling for Human Dignity telling about psychiatrist Anatoly Koryagin who resisted political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.[200]

In 1988, Reportazh iz Niotkuda (Reportage from Nowhere) by Viktor Rafalsky was published.[20]: 219  In the publication, he described his confinement in Soviet psychiatric hospitals.[77]

In 1993, Valeria Novodvorskaya published her collection of writings Po Tu Storonu Otchayaniya (Beyond Despair) in which her experience in the prison psychiatric hospital in Kazan was described.[89]

In 1996, Vladimir Bukovsky published his book Judgement in Moscow containing an account of developing the punitive psychiatry based on documents that were being submitted to and considered by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[201] The book was translated into English in 1999.[202]

In 2001, Nikolay Kupriyanov published his book GULAG-2-SN[203] which has the foreword by Anatoly Sobchak, covers repressive psychiatry in Soviet Army, and tells about humiliations Kupriyanov underwent in the psychiatric departments of the Northern Fleet hospital and the Kirov Military Medical Academy.[204]

In 2002, St. Petersburg forensic psychiatrist Vladimir Pshizov published his book Sindrom Zamknutogo Prostranstva (Syndrome of Closed Space) describing hospitalization of Viktor Fainberg.[205]

2003 saw the book Moyа Sudba i Borba protiv Psikhiatrov (My Destiny and Struggle against Psychiatrists) by Anatoly Serov who worked as a lead design engineer before he was committed to a psychiatric hospital.[206]

In 2010, Alexander Shatravka published his book Pobeg iz Raya (The Escape from Paradise) in which he described how he and his companions were caught after they illegally crossed the border between Finland and the Soviet Union to escape from the latter country and, as a result, were confined to Soviet psychiatric hospitals and prisons.[207] In his book, he also described methods of brutal treatment of prisoners in the institutions.[207]

The use of psychiatry for political purposes in the USSR was discussed in two television documentaries: They Chose Freedom produced by Vladimir V. Kara-Murza in 2005 and Prison Psychiatry produced by Anatoly Yaroshevsky of NTV in the same year.[208]

Documents

From 1987 to 1991, International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry published forty-two numbers of Documents on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the USSR[51]: 490  archived by the Columbia University Libraries in archival collection Human Rights Watch Records: Helsinki Watch, 1952-2003, Series VII: Chris Panico Files, 1979–1992, USSR, Psychiatry, International Association on the Political Use of Psychiatry, Box 16, Folder 5–8 (English version) and Box 16, Folder 9–11 (Russian version).[209] A number of various documents and reports were published in Information Bulletins by the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry For Political Purposes, Chronicle of Current Events by Moscow Helsinki Group[51]: 148  and in the books Punitive Medicine by Alexandr Podrabinek,[24][210] Bezumnaya Psikhiatriya (Mad Psychiatry) by Anatoly Prokopenko,[107] Judgement in Moscow by Vladimir Bukovsky,[201] Sovietskaya Psikhiatriya—Zabluzhdeniya i Umysel (Soviet Psychiatry: Fallacies and Intent) by Ada Korotenko and Natalia Alikina,[20] and Kaznimye Sumashestviem (The Executed by Madness).[110]

According to the Commentary on the Russian Federation Law on Psychiatric Care, persons, who were subjected to repressions in form of commitment for compulsory treatment to psychiatric medical institutions and were rehabilitated in accordance with the established procedure, receive indemnity payment; thereby the Russian Federation acknowledged the facts of the use of psychiatry for political purposes and the responsibility of the state to the victims of “political psychiatry.”[211]

See also

References

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Further reading